The Ukrainian orthography () is the orthography for the Ukrainian language, a system of generally accepted rules that determine the ways of transmitting speech in writing.
Until the last quarter of the 14th century Old East Slavic orthography was widespread.Сучасна українська мова (in Ukrainian). О. І. Бондар, Ю. О. Карпенко, М. Л. Микитин-Дружинець. 2006. p. 171 The Cyrillic alphabet generally corresponded to the sound structure of the Old East Slavic language. For example, orthography consistently conveyed the softness and hardness of sounds—а, о, ы, ѹ, ъ were written after hard consonants, and ѧ, є, и, ю, ь were written after soft consonants. The letters ж, ч, ш, ц conveyed soft consonants.
From the 12th century the orthography changes: ъ and ь decline, there is a double spelling (чьто and что), and instead of these, the letters о, е (хочьть and хочеть) are used, labial and hissing begin to lose softness (new spelling въсѣмъ instead of вьсѣмь).
In the 15th and 16th centuries the orthography of written texts changed according to the rules developed in the Bulgarian city of Tarnovo by scribes under the guidance of Patriarch Euthymius (the second South Slavic orthographic influence): forms appear primarily in confessional-style texts твоа, всеа, accents are placed at the beginning and end of the word. The rules of the Tarnovo school are reflected in the spelling, which was normalized in the work Slovenian Grammar by Zizanii Lavrentii in 1596.
From the 17th century changes in the Ukrainian orthography come from Meletius Smotrytskyi's «Ґрамма́тіки Славе́нския пра́вилное Cv́нтаґма» in 1619, when the letter ґ, the digraphs дж and дз, as well as й were introduced; in the orthography of the magazine Mermaid of the Dniester in 1837 the letter є was first used in its modern meaning, and also first introduced digraphs йо, ьо; kulishivka in 1856, when first extended consonants began to be denoted by two letters (весіллє—now весілля), changes to Kulishivka P. Zhitetsky and K. Mikhalchuk in the Notes of the South-Western Branch of the Russian Geographical Society in 1874–1875, when the letter ї began to be used in its present meaning; zhelekhivka of 1886 with the final establishment of the use of the letters е, є, и and the apostrophe in their present meaning, to the spelling of B. Hrinchenko (hrinchenkivka) in the Dictionary of the Ukrainian language for 1907–1909, which is the basis of modern spelling.
From the beginning of the 18th century most Ukrainian orthographic systems use the "Civil Script" (simplified writing of Cyrillic letters), only M. Hatsuk in 1860 proposed to use "pre-Petrine" Cyrillic. There were also attempts to Latinize the Ukrainian language, which is still being debated.
As stated in the preface to the Ukrainian orthography of the third edition, it "is an organic continuation of the first (1946) and second (1960)." "The orthography commission at the Department of Literature, Language and Art Studies of the UkrSSR Academy of Sciences prepared and approved the third edition on November 14, 1989 (published in 1990)."Максим Бистрицький. Неофіційні зміни в чинній українській орфографії / Ізборник . — К., 2012. On June 8, 1992, the Cabinet of Ministers of Ukraine accepted the proposal of the Academy of Sciences, the Ministry of Education and the Ministry of Culture of Ukraine to introduce the orthographic norms of the third edition into language practice starting in 1992. Subsequently, the Naukova Dumka Publishing House of the National Academy of Sciences of Ukraine republished the spelling. At the same time, “at first, stereotypical reprints of spelling continued to be numbered (1993 - 4th edition, corrected and supplemented, in 1994 an additional edition with the same initial data was printed, 1996 - 5th, stereotype., 1997 - 6th, stereotype., 1998 - 7th, stereotype.), Then simply noted without numbering that the reprint is stereotypical (1999, 2000, 2002, 2003, 2004, 2005), and in the latter (2007, 2008, 2010, 2012) there is no bibliographic description at all". There is no bibliographic description in the new version of the Ukrainian orthography of 2019.
Periods of development There are from 3 to 5 main stages of formation of the spelling of the Ukrainian language:
Ruthenian-Ukrainian period (early 10th–17th centuries) ancient Ruthenian-Ukrainian period: 10th Ruthenian-Ukrainian the third quarter of the 14th century. Old Ukrainian period: ost. quarter 14th–beg. 17th century Norms of Grammar by Meletius Smotrytsky in 1619 (17th and 18th centuries) New Ukrainian period (19th century–present) search for the best spelling of the modern language: 19th century spelling standardization with the involvement of state factors: from the beginning of the 20th century
Ruthenian-Ukrainian period (early 10th–17th centuries)
The origins of the Ukrainian orthography come from the Slavic orthography, initiated by the creators of the Slavic alphabet. Most Ukrainian graphics have hardly changed since then. In particular, the current alphabet has only two letters that, according to prof. Ilarion Ohiienko, were not in the Cyril and Methodius alphabet: ґ, which is known since the end of the 16th century and became widespread in the 17th century; and ї, which was first written instead of the former letter ѣ and in place of е in the newly closed syllable, and then took over the functions of the sound combination й+і.
The orthography, which was based on the Slavic alphabet, was largely supported in Ukraine by natives of Bulgaria, who worked here and rewrote texts (mostly of church content). In the period from 14th to 16th centuries the liturgical (and partly secular) manuscripts were dominated by the spelling developed by the Tarnovo (Bulgarian) Patriarch Euthymius. In Ukraine, the influence of this spelling has been felt since the end of the 14th century, and lasted until the 1720s. This period is known in linguistics as the "Second South Slavic Influence".
Smotrytskyi's "Grammar" of 1619 (17th and 18th centuries) In 1619, Meletius Smotrytskyi's work «Грамматіка славенскія правилноє синтагма» was published, where Slavic-Ukrainian writing was partially adapted to Ukrainian phonetics. Then the meanings of the letters г and ґ were distinguished, the letter combination дж and дз was introduced to denote the corresponding Ukr. sounds, the use of the letter й is legal.
In 1708, the spelling of the letters changed, and the traditional Cyrillic alphabet was replaced by a simplified version, the so-called "Civil Script". Ukrainian scientists also took part in the development of the new alphabet and graphics. The first images of 32 letters of the new font, which still form the basis for Ukrainian, Belarusian and Russian spelling, were printed in the city of Zhovkva near Lviv. Outdated letters have been removed from the alphabet: omega, fita, ksi, psi, Izhitsa, yus the big, yus the small, instead the letter я has been fixed (originally a cursive variant of yus the small).
New Ukrainian period (from the 19th century)
Orthography search of the 19th century In 1798, Ivan Kotlyarevskyi's Eneida was published, a work that pioneered new Ukrainian literature and prompted the search for modern ways of reproducing the Ukrainian language in writing. There was a need to change the traditional script. Writers who sought to write in the living Ukrainian language had to look for means to convey the true sound of the word, rather than being guided by ancient writing. In 1818 the letter і acquired its current use, in 1837 there was the letter є and combination йо, ьо, in 1873 letter ї was added.
Instead, the letters ъ, ы and э could be found less and less often. The rapid and constant change of elements of the alphabet and their various uses gave rise to a significant number of experiments with the Ukrainian language and the creation of a large number (from 1798 to 1905 can be counted about 50 more or less common, sometimes even individual) spelling systems.
The most famous of these attempts:
Orthography of Pavlovskyi Shashkevychivka (1837) Kulishivka — Panteleimon Kulish's orthography system in Notes on Southern Rus (1856) and in Grammar (1857) Drahomanivka (produced in the 1870s in Kiev by a group of Ukrainian cultural figures under the leadership of linguist Pavlo Zhytetsky, which included Mykhailo Drahomanov) Zhelekhivka created by Ukrainian scientist Yevhen Zhelekhivskyi while working on his own Little Russian-German Dictionary (Lviv, 1886). This spelling is enshrined in the Ruthenian Grammar by Stepan Smal-Stotskyi and Theodor Gartner, published in 1893 in Lviv. Borys Hrinchenko used some corrections in the fundamental four-volume Dictionary of the Ukrainian Language (1907-1909). Most of the spelling rules (practically based on phonetics—"write as you hear") used in Grinchenko's dictionary are still valid.
The sound and the corresponding letter of the modern Ukrainian alphabet«Slavonic Grammar with Correct Syntax» Meletius Smotrytskyi, 1619«Civil Script», 1708Orthography of Kamenetskyi, 1798Orthography of Pavlovskyi, 1818Maksymovychivka, 1827Shashkevychivka, 1837Hatsukivka, 1857Orthography of Taras Shevchenko, in particular in the "Primer of South Russia", 1861Kulishivka, 1856Changes to the Kulishivka of P. Zhitetskyi and K. Mikhalchuk, Notes of the South-Western Branch of the Russian Geographical Society, 1874–75Yaryzhka, 19th centuryDrahomanivka, 1870sZhelekhivka, 1886Hrinchekivka, 1907One of the variants of Latin (decision No. 9 of the commission on legal terminology, simplified system, protocol No. 2 from 19.04.1996)Latynka Josefa Jirečeka, 1859[ɑ] — аaa[b] — бbb[w] / [ʋ] — вletter with titlo у҄ : у҄сю ручку (всю ручку)vv[ɦ] — гh, ghh[ɡ] — ґletter ґ: фѣґура (фігура)letter гdigraph кг: кгрунтъ (ґрунт)letter г: грунт (ґрунт)letter гletter г: дзигари (дзиґарі)letter g: дзиgа (дзиґа)digraph кг: кгрунт (ґрунт)as in modern orthographygg[d] — дdd[dʲ] — дьletter with titlo д҄dď[ɟː] — softened ддalways ддьone letter дdd[d͡ʒ] — джdigraph джdigraph джletter џ : розраџає (розраджає)dzhdž[d͡z] — дзdigraph дзdigraph дзin some versions of drahomanivka — ѕdzdz[d͡zʲ] — дзьdzdź[ɛ] — еletter э at the beginning of the word / after vowels, letters е / и after consonants: эолъ (еол), поэтъ (поет), теперъ (тепер), минѣ (мені)letters ы / е: чырвоный (червоний), очеретъ (очерет)letter є, at the beginning of a word sometimes э: жєньци (женці)letters и / е: почали (почали), лебонь (либонь)letter є: вєчир (вечір)letters е, и, ы: тиче (тече), ныначе (неначе)letters е / и: друже (друже), пиромъ (перо́м)letter е: не чуе (не чує)as in modern orthographyee[jɛ] — єletter е: мое (моє)letter ѣ : маѣшъ (маєш)letter е: збирае (збирає)first letter є: почуєшletter є́ : має́ (має)after vowels a letter е, after soft consonants — ѣ : твое (твоє), синѣ (синє)letter е: попивае (попиває)letter є: маєletter е: не чуе (не чує)digraphs је / ье: сподівајетцьа (сподівається)as in modern orthographyye, i.e.: Yenakiieve (Єнакієве)je/ 'e