Microfiltration is a type of physical filtration process where a contaminated fluid is passed through a special pore-sized membrane filter to separate microorganisms and suspended particles from process liquid. It is commonly used in conjunction with various other separation processes such as ultrafiltration and reverse osmosis to provide a product stream which is free of undesired contaminants.
General principles
Microfiltration usually serves as a pre-treatment for other separation processes such as ultrafiltration, and a post-treatment for granular media filtration. The typical particle size used for microfiltration ranges from about 0.1 to 10 μm.Baker, R 2012, Microfiltration, in Membrane Technology and Applications, 3rd edn, John Wiley & Sons Ltd, California. p. 303 In terms of approximate molecular weight these membranes can separate macromolecules of molecular weights generally less than 100,000 g/mol.Microfiltration/Ultrafiltration, 2008, Hyflux Membranes, accessed 27 September 2013. < rel="nofollow>" The filters used in the microfiltration process are designed to prevent particles such as sediment, algae, protozoa or large bacteria from passing through the membrane. More microscopic, atomic or ionic materials such as water (H2O), monovalent species such as Sodium (Na+) or Chloride (Cl−) ions, dissolved or natural organic matter, and small colloids and viruses will still be able to pass through the filter.Crittenden, J, Trussell, R, Hand, D, Howe, K & Tchobanoglous, G. 2012, Principles of Water Treatment, 2nd edn, John Wiley and Sons, New Jersey. 8.1
The suspended liquid is passed through at a relatively high velocity of around 1–3 m/s and at low to moderate pressures (around 100–400 kPa) parallel or tangential to the semi-permeable membrane in a sheet or tubular form.Perry, RH & Green, DW, 2007. Perry's Chemical Engineers' Handbook, 8th Edn. McGraw-Hill Professional, New York. p. 2072 A pump is commonly fitted onto the processing equipment to allow the liquid to pass through the membrane filter. There are also two pump configurations, either pressure driven or vacuum. A differential or regular pressure gauge is commonly attached to measure the pressure drop between the outlet and inlet streams. See Figure 1 for a general setup.Baker, R 2000, Microfiltration, in Membrane Technology and Applications, John Wiley & Sons Ltd, California. p. 279.
The most abundant use of microfiltration membranes are in the water, beverage and bio-processing industries (see below). The exit process stream after treatment using a micro-filter has a recovery rate which generally ranges to about 90–98 %.Kenna, E & Zander, A 2000, Current Management of Membrane Plant Concentrate, American Waterworks Association, Denver. p.14
Range of applications
Water treatment
Perhaps the most prominent use of microfiltration membranes pertains to the treatment of potable water supplies. The membranes are a key step in the primary disinfection of the intake water stream. Such a stream might contain pathogens such as the protozoa Cryptosporidium and Giardia lamblia which are responsible for numerous disease outbreaks. Both species show a gradual resistance to traditional disinfectants (i.e. chlorine).Water Treatment Solutions. 1998, Lenntech, accessed 27 September 2013 <http://www.lenntech.com/microfiltration.htm The use of MF membranes presents a physical means of separation (a barrier) as opposed to a chemical alternative. In that sense, both filtration and disinfection take place in a single step, negating the extra cost of chemical dosage and the corresponding equipment (needed for handling and storage).
Similarly, the MF membranes are used in secondary wastewater effluents to remove turbidity but also to provide treatment for disinfection. At this stage, coagulants (iron or aluminum) may potentially be added to precipitate species such as phosphorus and arsenic which would otherwise have been soluble.
Sterilization
Another crucial application of MF membranes lies in the cold sterilisation of beverages and pharmaceuticals.Veolia Water, Pharmaceutical & Cosmetics. 2013, Veolia Water, accessed 27 September 2013. Available from: <http://www.veoliawaterst.com/industries/pharmaceutical-cosmetics/.> Historically, heat was used to sterilize refreshments such as juice, wine and beer in particular, however a palatable loss in flavour was clearly evident upon heating. Similarly, pharmaceuticals have been shown to lose their effectiveness upon heat addition. MF membranes are employed in these industries as a method to remove bacteria and other undesired suspensions from liquids, a procedure termed as 'cold sterilisation', which negate the use of heat.
Petroleum refining
Furthermore, microfiltration membranes are finding increasing use in areas such as petroleum refining,Baker, R.,3rd ed, Microfiltration, in Membrane Technology and Applications John Wiley & Sons Ltd: California. p. 303-324. in which the removal of particulates from flue gases is of particular concern. The key challenges/requirements for this technology are the ability of the membrane modules to withstand high temperatures (i.e. maintain stability), but also the design must be such to provide a very thin sheeting (thickness < 2000 angstroms) to facilitate an increase of flux. In addition the modules must have a low fouling profile and most importantly, be available at a low-cost for the system to be financially viable.
Dairy processing
Aside from the above applications, MF membranes have found dynamic use in major areas within the dairy industry, particularly for milk and whey processing. The MF membranes aid in the removal of bacteria and the associated spores from milk, by rejecting the harmful species from passing through. This can also be used as a precursor for pasteurisation, allowing for an extended shelf-life of the product. Microbacterium appear able to both pass through the 0.8 and 1.2 μm membranes and resist HSTS pasteurisation.
Another promising technique for MF membranes in this field pertains to the separation of casein from whey proteins (i.e. serum milk proteins).GEA Filtration – Dairy Applications. 2013, GEA Filtration, accessed 26 September 2013, <http://www.geafiltration.com/applications/industrial_applications.asp.> This results in two product streams both of which are highly relied on by consumers; a casein-rich concentrate stream used for cheese making, and a whey/serum protein stream which is further processed (using ultrafiltration) to make whey protein concentrate. The whey protein stream undergoes further filtration to remove fat in order to achieve higher protein content in the final WPC (Whey Protein Concentrate) and WPI (Whey Protein Isolate) powders.
Other applications
Other common applications utilising microfiltration as a major separation process include Clarification and purification of cell broths where macromolecules are to be separated from other large molecules, proteins, or cell debris.Baker, R 2012, Microfiltration, in Membrane Technology and Applications, 3rd edn, John Wiley & Sons Ltd, California. p. 303-324. Other biochemical and bio-processing applications such as clarification of dextrose.Valentas J., Rotstein E, & Singh, P 1997, Handbook of Food Engineering Practice, CRC Press LLC, Florida, p.202 Production of Paints and Adhesives.Starbard, N 2008, Beverage Industry Microfiltration, Wiley Blackwell, Iowa. p.4
Characteristics of main process Membrane filtration processes can be distinguished by three major characteristics: driving force, retentate stream and permeate streams. The microfiltration process is pressure driven with suspended particles and water as retentate and dissolved solutes plus water as permeate. The use of hydraulic pressure accelerates the separation process by increasing the flow rate (flux) of the liquid stream but does not affect the chemical composition of the species in the retentate and product streams.Cheryan, M 1998, Fouling and Cleaning in Ultrafiltration and Microfiltration Handbook 2nd edn., CRC Press, Florida, p.1-9.
A major characteristic that limits the performance of microfiltration or any membrane technology is a process known as fouling. Fouling describes the deposition and accumulation of feed components such as suspended particles, impermeable dissolved solutes or even permeable solutes, on the membrane surface and or within the pores of the membrane. Fouling of the membrane during the filtration processes decreases the flux and thus overall efficiency of the operation. This is indicated when the pressure drop increases to a certain point. It occurs even when operating parameters are constant (pressure, flow rate, temperature and concentration) Fouling is mostly irreversible although a portion of the fouling layer can be reversed by cleaning for short periods of time.Cheryan, M 1998, 'Fouling and Cleaning. in Ultrafiltration and Microfiltration Handbook' 2nd edn., CRC Press, Florida, p.1-9. Understanding micron ratings is essential in industrial filtration, as incorrect filter sizing can lead to equipment damage, process inefficiencies, and regulatory issues.
Membrane configurations
Microfiltration membranes can generally operate in one of two configurations.
Cross-flow filtration: where the fluid is passed through tangentially with respect to the membrane.Perry, RH & Green, DW, 2007. Perry's Chemical Engineers' Handbook, 8th Edn. McGraw-Hill Professional, New York. p 2072-2100 Part of the feed stream containing the treated liquid is collected below the filter while parts of the water are passed through the membrane untreated. Cross flow filtration is understood to be a unit operation rather than a process. Refer to Figure 2 for a general schematic for the process.
Dead-end filtration; all of the process fluid flows and all particles larger than the pore sizes of the membrane are stopped at its surface. All of the feed water is treated at once subject to cake formation.Perry, RH & Green, DW, 2007. Perry's Chemical Engineers' Handbook, 8th Edn. McGraw-Hill Professional, New York. p2072-2100 This process is mostly used for batch or semicontinuous filtration of low concentrated solutions.Seadler, J & Henley, E 2006, Separation Process Principles, 2nd Edn, John Wiley & Sons Inc. New Jersey. p.501 Refer to Figure 3 for a general schematic for this process.
Process and equipment design
The major issues that influence the selection of the membrane includeAmerican Water Works Association, 2005. Microfiltration and Ultrafiltration Membranes in Drinking Water (M53) (Awwa Manual) (Manual of Water Supply Practices). 1st ed. American Waterworks Association. Denver. p. 165
Site-specific issues
Capacity and demand of the facility. Percentage recovery and rejection. Fluid characteristics (viscosity, turbidity, density) Quality of the fluid to be treated Pre-treatment processes
Membrane specific issues
Cost of material procurement and manufacture Operating temperature Trans-membrane pressure Membrane flux Handling fluid characteristics (viscosity, turbidity, density) Monitoring and maintenance of the system Cleaning and treatment Disposal of process residuals
Process design variables
Operation and control of all processes in the system Materials of construction Equipment and instrumentation (controllers, sensors) and their cost.
Fundamental design heuristics
A few important design heuristics and their assessment are discussed below:
When treating raw contaminated fluids, hard sharp materials can wear and tear the porous cavities in the micro-filter, rendering it ineffective. Liquids must be subjected to pre-treatment before passage through the micro-filter.Water Treatment Solutions. 1998, Lenntech, accessed 27 September 2013 < http://www.lenntech.com/microfiltration.htm This may be achieved by a variation of macro separation processes such as screening, or granular media filtration.