Namibia is one of few countries in the world to specifically address habitat conservation and protection of natural resources in their constitution.(Stefanova 2005) Article 95 states, "The State shall actively promote and maintain the welfare of the people by adopting international policies aimed at the following: maintenance of ecosystems, essential ecological processes, and biological diversity of Namibia, and utilization of living natural resources on a sustainable basis for the benefit of all Namibians, both present and future."
History and developmentals
In 1993, the newly formed government of Namibia received funding from the United States Agency of International Development (USAID) through its Living in a Finite Environment (LIFE) Project.(USAID 2006) The Ministry of Environment and Tourism with the financial support of organizations such as USAID, Endangered Wildlife Trust, WWF, and Canadian Ambassador's Fund, together formed a Community Based Natural Resource Management (CBNRM) support structure. The main goal of this project is to promote sustainable natural resource management by giving local communities rights to wildlife management and tourism.(UNEP et al. 2005)
In 1996, the Government of Namibia introduced legislation giving communities the power to create their own conservancies. The legislation allowed local communities to create conservancies that managed and benefited from wildlife on communal land while allowing the local community to work with private companies to create and manage their own tourism market.(WWF 2006) As of 2006, there are 44 communal conservancies in operation,(Ministry of Environment and Tourism 2007) in which the members are responsible for protecting their own resources sustainably, particularly the wildlife populations for game hunting and ecotourism revenues.
USAID began its third phase of CBNRM program in 2005, which includes expanding community management to include forest, fisheries and grazing land. The third phase also puts an emphasis on community training for business and trade skills.
The conservancies stress the importance of local community control, but do not place any pressure on becoming a member. Communities that wish to apply to become a conservancy must apply through the Minister of Environment and Tourism office.(Community Based Natural Resource Management, Date unknown) Requirements for the conservancy application include a list of local area people who are community members, a declaration of their goals and objectives, and a map of their geographic boundaries. Their plans must also be discussed with communities that surround their boundaries. Any funds that the community receives through their conservancy must be distributed to the local community.(Namibia MET date unknown; UNEP et al. 2005)
The conservancies in Namibia consist of various types,(Namibia MET date unknown) including the following:
Traditional villages These villages attract tourists by displaying their traditional traditions for outsiders. They are conserving Namibia’s cultural heritage while being a source of employment and revenue for the local population.
Community campsites There are several community owned campsites that provide revenue for the communities that operate them. Staying at campsites is an accessible and affordable way for tourists to lodge in Namibia.
Safari and trophy hunting Conservancies can develop safari lodges for tourists to visit. Since it takes a great deal of capital to build lodges, conservancies can generate capital by entering in partnerships with private investors. Communities seeking to allow trophy hunting must apply at the same time to be registered as a hunting farm.(Ministry of Environment and Tourism, www.met.gov.na) Conservancies that are home to wildlife can earn income by allowing tourists to pay for hunting privileges or photo tourism.
Sale of crafts Production and sale of local crafts creates income for local residents, especially women. Crafts are mainly manufactured from natural resources, and these need to be used sustainably if the industry is to continue to grow. NACSO partners provide support in terms of craft development, quality improvement and marketing. Alternative materials for craft making are also explored.(NACSO, www.nacso.org)
Community forests In 2001, the government of Namibia approved the Forest Act No. 12. This act allows local communities to obtain forest management rights from the Ministry of the Environment and Tourism. In 2004, 13 communities signed the first community forest agreement with the Minister of the MET.(MET.gov) The Community Forest Act focuses on the management of all types of natural vegetation. The term "forest" can include woodlands, grazing areas, farms, settlements, roads and rivers. The term "Forest Resources" refer to natural resources such as trees, fruits, shrubs, herbs, grasses and animals.
Profits from the conservancies are pooled together and used for the benefit of the community. The money can be used for projects such as building schools, daycare facilities or clinics. For example, the Torra Conservancy contributed $2,000 for school renovations, including buying a new photocopier. The profits have also been used for purchasing equipment such as ambulances,(Stefanova 2005; WWF 2006) while other funds are allocated to individuals as a payment for being a member of the conservancies.
Since the introduction of the conservation legislation in 1996, benefits to the local communities have greatly increased.(Weaver and Skyer 2003) In 2004, the annual earnings for all 31 conservancies combined equaled $2.35 million, compared to $100,000 in 1995. The first self-sufficient conservancy was the Torra Conservancy, and in 2003, the annual average monetary distribution to their members was about $75. The progress of the CBNRM programs has been such that approximately 1 out of 12 Namibians is a member of a communal wildlife conservancy. An example of a communal conservancy is African Wild Dog Conservancy.
Protecting wildlife through the conservancies
Namibia has a high level of biodiversity. Approximately 75% of the mammal species richness of Southern Africa exists in Namibia, with 14 endemic species.(Griffin 1998) In fact, the southwest arid zone in Namibia, and much of South Africa, is an endemism hot spot for mammals, birds, and amphibians.(Simmons et al. 1998). Some of this pattern of endemism comes from species being confined by physical barriers, such as the Rocky Escarpment, or being adapted to arid conditions.(Simmons et al. 1998)
There are 3 major biotic zones in Namibia, each being host to many endemic species: the Namib Desert, the Southwest Arid, and the Southern Savanna Woodland. In particular, the Namib Desert is home to the endemic desert elephant and the black rhino.
The aridity of Namibia makes the wetland ecosystems extremely crucial for many species, and can actually drive the distribution patterns of mammals. There's a gradient of species richness in Namibia that extends from southwest to northeast, which is similar to the pattern of rainfall. Because of the aridity, many animal species rely on protected migration corridors during droughty conditions.
Currently, about 50% of all species in Namibia are of some conservation concern. Historically, large game species were vulnerable to hunting and poaching, while other species, such as large mammal predators were vulnerable to habitat conversion to agriculture, leading to local extinction and numerous threatened species. Over the past 200 years, economically valuable game species, such as zebra or lion have experienced a 95% reduction of their former range in Namibia and species, such as elephants and rhinos experienced population reductions to sizes as low as 50 individuals. Although exact numbers are unknown, it is estimated that at least 10 mammal species once known to be in Namibia are no longer there, and are assumed to be locally extinct.
Many of the wildlife populations have also decreased due to human-wildlife conflict, and as a response, these conservancies have attempted to address these concerns. As increasing human populations and habitat conversions to agriculture and/or livestock grazing occur, cheetahs, lions, and other large predators prey on cattle and other livestock. The conservancies mitigate the conflict by compensating the farmers for their losses. Some conservancies pay in cash specifically set aside from the conservancy funds, or, as in the Torra Conservancy, livestock are replaced by ones bred in a breeding station funded by the conservancy profits. This can actually reduce the "revenge killing" of large mammal predators that has been a large cause of the population reductions.
Besides livestock losses, there is also a need to reduce human-elephant conflicts around water resources. There have been several reported elephant attacks, particularly in the northwestern region of Namibia. The Nyae Nyae Conservancy has used the income generated from their park to build and manage water points specifically for elephants away from the human lands. The members of the conservancy are often given cash incentives to keep these water points functioning.(Weaver and Skyer 2003; WWF 2006)
Currently, approximately 14% of Namibia is designated as protected areas,(Barnard 1998; Griffin 1998; Stefanova 2005) which in 2003, was equivalent to 112,000 km2. Adding the protected communal conservancy lands brings the total to 192, 000 km2 of land under some protection. Some exist under an unsystematic figuration design, but 17 of the 29 conservancies (at that time) actually lie adjacent to the government's protected area networks (PANs). This can increase the continuity between protected areas and result in migration routes for elephants and other large range animals.
As a result of these conservancies, there are many instances in which wildlife populations are on the rebound. Poaching has decreased dramatically, and is most likely due to the shift in the perceived value of wildlife.(Vertefeuille and Benn 2005) The conservancy members now see that the sustainability of the wildlife is important for providing economic development in game hunting and ecotourism, and often game guards are employed to protect the wildlife from poaching.(Stefanova 2005; UNEP et al. 2005) Animals such as elephants, oryx, buffalo, Hartmann's zebra, springbok and lion, are once again providing biodiversity to the country of Namibia. The black rhino population has recovered to become one of the largest free-roaming herds, and the cheetah population has become the world's largest population at approximately 2,500 individuals.(Marker et al. 2003; Stefanova 2005) A 2003 game count in northwestern Namibia revealed population recoveries to 500 elephants (up from 50), and 14,000 zebras (up from 500), and 100,000 springbok, and 35,000 oryx.