Guadalupe Victoria (; 29 September 178621 March 1843), born José Miguel Ramón Adaucto Fernández y Félix, was a Mexican general and politician who fought for independence against the Spanish Empire in the Mexican War of Independence and after the adoption of the Constitution of 1824, was elected as the first president of the United Mexican States. He was a deputy in the Mexican Chamber of Deputies for Durango and a member of the Supreme Executive Power following the downfall of the First Mexican Empire, which was followed by the 1824 Constitution and his presidency. He later served as Governor of Puebla.
Born in Nueva Vizcaya, New Spain (now Durango), he graduated from the College of San Ildefonso with a Bachelor of Laws degree. He joined the Mexican War of Independence under general José María Morelos. During the war, he became one of the most prominent independence generals, participating in numerous battles, including the siege of Cuautla, the capture of Oaxaca, and many battles in Veracruz. In 1817, his troops deserted him, and he stayed in hiding until 1821, when the independence movement was reinvigorated by generals Vicente Guerrero and Agustín de Iturbide, and he helped re-capture Veracruz.
Victoria remained an important and popular figure in the army during the First Mexican Empire, after the Declaration of Independence, wherein de Iturbide served as Emperor Agustín. The two were at odds due to de Iturbide's suspension of congress and his refusal to install a republican form of government. Victoria joined Antonio López de Santa Anna's revolt, and de Iturbide was exiled in 1823. Victoria then served as part of the Provisional Government from 1823 to 1824, when congress ratified the Constitution of 1824, and elected Victoria as Mexico's first president.
As president, he established diplomatic relations with the United Kingdom, the United States, the Federal Republic of Central America, and Gran Colombia. He also founded the National Museum, promoted education, and ratified the border with the United States of America. He decreed the expulsion of the Spaniards remaining in the country and defeated the last Spanish stronghold in the castle of San Juan de Ulúa.
In 1829, Victoria peacefully passed the presidency to general Vicente Guerrero. Victoria was the only president to complete his full term in more than 30 years of an independent Mexico. He later served as a senator for Durango and Veracruz, governor of Puebla, and president of the senate. He negotiated an end to the Pastry War with France in 1838. He died in 1843 at the age of 56 from epilepsy in the fortress of Perote, where he was receiving medical treatment. On 8 April of the same year, it was decreed that his name would be written in golden letters in the session hall of the Chamber of Deputies.
Victoria is considered a national hero and one of the most popular presidents in the history of early Mexico. There are numerous streets, airports, schools, and cities (most notably Victoria de Durango and Ciudad Victoria) named in his honor, as is the city of Victoria, Texas, in the United States.
Childhood and education
Guadalupe Victoria was born as José Miguel Ramón Adaucto Fernández y Félix on 29 September 1786 in Tamazula in the province of Nueva Vizcaya, New Spain (now the Mexican state of Durango). His parents, who died early in his childhood, were Manuel Fernández de Victoria and María Alejandra Félix Niebla. He was baptized by his paternal uncle Agustín Fernández, at that time the priest of Tamazula, with whom he lived after being orphaned.
He studied at the Seminary of Durango. Having no resources to pay for food, he made copies of a Latin grammar text to sell to other students for two reales. In 1807, he went to Mexico City, where he enrolled in the college of San Ildefonso to pursue degrees in Canon Law and Civil Law."Guadalupe Victoria". Microsoft Student 2009 [DVD]. Microsoft Corporation, 2008. He studied under a tense atmosphere, because the school was militarized by a colonial order. On 24 April 1811, he submitted his review and graduated as a Bachelor of Laws.
Mexican War of Independence
In 1812, he joined the insurgent forces of Hermenegildo Galeana and fought alongside José María Morelos at the Siege of Cuautla. He also participated in the assault on Oaxaca and joined the troops of Nicolás Bravo in Veracruz. He dedicated himself and his troops to controlling the passage of El Puente del Rey and became famous for his successful attacks on military convoys until 1815, when he was defeated.
Assault of Oaxaca The assault on Oaxaca took place on 25 November 1812. Insurgents led by José María Morelos defeated the royalist forces of Lieutenant General Gonzalez Saravia.
Other members of the insurgent forces that participated in the assault of Oaxaca were Hermenegildo Galeana, Nicolás Bravo, Mariano Matamoros, Manuel Mier y Terán, and Vicente Guerrero.
Guadalupe Victoria engaged in the battle in the Juego de Pelota, which was surrounded by a moat that insurgent soldiers did not dare to cross; Guadalupe Victoria threw his sword across the moat and said ¡Va mi espada en prenda, voy por ella! (There goes my sword as pledge, I'm going for it!). He swam across the moat and cut the rope of a bridge to allow the insurgent troops into the city.
The loss of Oaxaca was a heavy blow to the colonial government, because it gave great military prestige to Morelos, as well as a privileged geographical position because of the roads and towns that could be controlled from that site.Zárate, 1880; 327–329
Due to his success in Oaxaca, by order of the Congress of Chilpancingo, Victoria was granted the command of the insurgent army in Veracruz. At the same time, José Miguel Fernández y Félix decided to change his name to Guadalupe due to his devotion to the Virgin of Guadalupe, and Victoria for the victory.
Veracruz
In 1815, Victoria commanded insurgents in the region of Veracruz. Using guerrilla warfare tactics, he obtained control of the Puente del Rey ("King's Bridge"), a strategic position that connected Xalapa to the port of Veracruz. When he learned that royalist troops were coming to fight, he reinforced the defenses on the bridge, but was still forced to retreat to Nautla in July of that year.
To have a point of supply from the Gulf of Mexico, Victoria took control of the Boquilla de Piedras, a port located between Tuxpan and the port of Veracruz. This port was fitted with docks, warehouses and batteries for defense and remained under the control of Victoria until November 1816, when it was retaken by the royalist army. Shortly afterwards, Naolinco became the headquarters of the insurgents, and from there they controlled the area of Misantla, Puente Nacional and Huatusco.
Also in 1816, when the new viceroy Juan Ruiz de Apodaca arrived at New Spain, Victoria attacked his convoy to Mexico City and came very close to capturing him.
In late 1816, Victoria regained Nautla, defeating the royalist garrison. He also occupied Barra de Palmas, Barra Nueva and La Laguna. The strong royalist offensive, as well as a lack of military equipment, resulted in the occupied positions being recovered by the Spaniards in February 1817.
By mid-1817, Guadalupe Victoria had lost all the towns of his command. After his defeat in Palmillas, he was abandoned by his men and faced intense persecution. He hid in the jungle, where he survived eating herbs, fruits and animals. He refused to accept a pardon from the Viceroy for his actions and remained hidden in the jungles of Veracruz, where he developed epilepsy. His sporadic appearances in the towns turned him into a legend among the inhabitants of the region.
Plan of Iguala and Treaty of Córdoba
Guadalupe Victoria spent almost four years hiding in the jungle. They were difficult years for the independence movement and the colonial government thought that the movement had been suppressed. During this time most of the insurgents accepted a viceregal pardon; only Vicente Guerrero kept up the fight.
The installation of the Cortes of Cádiz in Spain and the deterioration of the Spanish monarchy on the Iberian Peninsula helped revitalize the struggle for Mexican independence at the end of 1820. Victoria was informed about the progress of the insurrection and reappeared on 30 December of that year in the town of Soledad, where a small garrison quickly joined him.
On 24 February 1821, Agustín de Iturbide and Vicente Guerrero proclaimed the Plan of Iguala. Iturbide began a tour of the Bajío region to spread the movement. Several royalist military leaders joined the Plan of Iguala and so did some retired insurgent leaders, including Nicolás Bravo and Ignacio López Rayón. Guadalupe Victoria also joined. On 6 April, Victoria proclaimed independence in the town of Soledad. In late May, with the exception of the capital, the province of Veracruz was up in arms.
The Army of the Three Guarantees was created on 24 February 1821 as part of the Plan of Iguala and continued battling Spanish royalist forces that refused to accept Mexican independence. These battles continued until 21 August 1821, when Iturbide and Spanish Viceroy Juan O'Donojú signed the Treaty of Córdoba.
On 27 September 1821, the Army of the Three Guarantees entered Mexico City, forming a column headed by Agustín de Iturbide. Among the officers who entered the city that day were Pedro Celestino Negrete, Vicente Guerrero, Nicolás Bravo, Anastasio Bustamante, Melchor Múzquiz, José Joaquín de Herrera, Manuel Mier y Terán, Luis Quintanar, Miguel Barragán, Vicente Filisola, Antonio López de Santa Anna and Guadalupe Victoria.Zárate, 1889; 750–751 On 28 September 1821, the Declaration of Independence of the Mexican Empire was signed.
Mexican Empire
Guadalupe Victoria met with Agustín de Iturbide on 17 June 1821 in San Juan del Río and asked him to adopt the Plan of Iguala to create a republican government. Victoria recommended as ruler a former insurgent who was unmarried and had not accepted the pardon. This man would marry an indigenous Guatemalan woman to unite both territories into a single nation. Iturbide refused the proposition. Both men supported independence, but felt a mutual distrust.González Pedrero, 2005; 109
A regency was created to serve as executive, led by Iturbide, who ruled until 18 May 1822, when he was proclaimed emperor. Iturbide chose all members of the Provisional Governing Board, which would serve as Legislative and rule until 24 February 1822, when the First Constituent Congress was installed.Villoro, 2009; 522 Almost all members were notable for their social position, wealth and titles. They were also all former fervent supporters of the Spanish rule. None of the former insurgents, such as Vicente Guerrero, Nicolás Bravo, Ignacio López Rayón, Guadalupe Victoria and Andrés Quintana Roo, were called to participate.Villoro, 2009; 520
In early 1822, some of the former insurgents with republican ideas began meeting at the house of Miguel Domínguez in Querétaro. They wrote to Pedro Celestino Negrete inviting him to participate, but he thought that it was a conspiracy and told Iturbide. Seventeen people were arrested, including Guadalupe Victoria, Nicolás Bravo and Miguel Barragán. The "conspiracy" was only meetings during which they talked about the future of government. Almost immediately, participants were released, with the exception of Guadalupe Victoria, who remained jailed, but who soon after escaped from prison and hid in Veracruz.Arias, 1880; 28
Congress asked to review the case of Guadalupe Victoria, who had been elected deputy by Durango. Victoria was a fugitive, indicted on charges of conspiracy. He was requested to present himself to congress, but he preferred to stay hidden.Arias, 1880; 66