This article discusses the grammar of the Western Lombard (Insubric) language. The examples are in Milanese, written according to the Classical Milanese orthography.
General characteristics of Insubric grammar The phonetical characteristics of Insubric language are the halving of consonants, the voicing of intervocalic consonants, the transformation of Latin "u" into Insubric /y/, Latin short "o" into /œ/ø/, partial transformation of long "o" into /u/, the falling of final vowels except "a", loss of Latin suffix "re" of infinitive, suffix "i" for 1st person, partial falling of intervocalic "d", partial transformation of "a" into "o" when followed by "l" and another consonant, the transformation of Latin groups "pl", "bl", "fl", "gl" into "pi", "bi", "fi", "gi" (read: dj) and of group "ct" into "c" (read: tsh), the nasalization of vowels followed by "n" or its transformation into a velar nasal, the falling of final "l" and "r" when followed by a long vowel, the distinction of vowel length, the partial transformation of intervocalic "l" into "r". The etymology of the words is very often derived from Latin. An uncommon feature for a Romance language is the extended use of idiomatic phrasal verbs (verb-particle constructions) much in the same way as in English. E.g. "trà" (to draw, to pull), "trà via" (to waste, to throw away), "trà sù" (to vomit, to throw up), "trà foeura" (to remove, to take away); "mangià" (to eat), "mangià foeura" (to squander). Unlike most Romance languages, Western Lombard has vowel quantity oppositions. Examples are: pas ("peace") vs. pass ("step" or "mountain pass") ciapaa ("caught" or "got", masc.) vs. ciapà ("to catch" or "to get"). The base vowels of Western Lombard language are: /a/ (c.m.o. "a"), /e/ (c.m.o. "e"), /ɛ/ (c.m.o. "e"), /i/ (c.m.o. "i"), /o/ (c.m.o. "o"), /ɔ/ (c.m.o. "o"), opener and closer /œ/ (c.m.o. "oeu"), /u/ (c.m.o. "o") and /y/ (c.m.o. "u").
Syntax The most frequent word order is subject–verb–object, but all the other orders are possible when there isn't any ambiguity: the inversions are commonly used to emphasise the first word. Examples are: Mi voo a scoeula. "I go to school." Voo a scoeula, mi. Again, this sentence means "I go to school" but in this case, the act of going to school wants to be emphasised. Like the Italian language, when a proclitic pronoun is used, however, this comes before the verb and the auxiliary: Lù la ved. "He sees her". The singular third person of the verb is preceded by a proclitic word ("el" for masculine subject, "la" for feminine subject: identical to definite articles) that remind the subject; the singular second person of the verb is preceded by a proclitic word ("te"). There might be, but it's optional, other proclitic words, like "a" in all the persons, or "i" in the plural third person: Luu el suguta a cantà. "He keeps singing." Lee la và in gesa. "She goes to the church." Ti te set ingles. "You are English." As noted before differently from to Italian, the personal pronoun is always followed by the subject pronoun: Mi a voo a scoeula. / * Mi se voo a scoeula. Ti te set ingles. However, similarly to Italian, in Lombard the personal pronoun can be dropped. Unlike Italian, whenever this happens the subject pronoun must not be dropped: A voo a scoeula. / Se voo a scoeula. Te set ingles.
Articles Definite article The Insubric definite article derives from a Latin distal demonstrative, ille. It can vary according to the gender (feminine or masculine) and number (singular or plural) of the noun. The definite article takes the following forms: singular plural before consonant before vowel masculine el l' i feminine la Like the, the Insubric definite article is used with a noun referring to a specific item when both the speaker and the audience know what the item is. It is necessary in the following cases: Use ExampleGeneral categories and abstractionsLa pascenza a l'è on virtù.Patience is a virtue.Name and adjective clustersLa Londra veggia a l'è bella.Old London is beauty.LanguagesThe article can be exempt in several cases when using the passive voice: Quel liber chì a l'è scrivuu in frances. and academic subjectsMi a capissi el todesch.I understand German.CountriesMi se voeuri visità la Franza.I want to visit France.Mountains, rivers and lakes.L'Ada laproclitic word, not an article traversa el lach de Còmm.The Adda pass through the Como lake.SeasonsLa primavera a l'è la mia stagion preferida.Spring is my favourite season.Titles, family namesTe i chì i Brambilla.Here are the Brambillas.Parts of the bodyEl se lava i man.He washes his hands.Possessive adjectivesEl mè pader.My father. Unlike the, the definite article is also used with mass nouns and plural nouns with generic interpretation, and with abstract nouns. For example: Me pias el latt. ("I like milk.") Me piasen i romanz. ("I like novels.") El capitalism ha transformaa quest paes chì. ("Capitalism has transformed this country.") Besides, definite article is used in front of proper nouns: El Giovann m'ha dii. ("John told me.") La Sara stà de cà a Cernusch. ("Sarah lives in Cernusco.") Western Lombard is a synthetic fusional language.
Indefinite article The Insubric indefinite article is analogous to the English indefinite article a/an. Like a/an, the Insubric indefinite article is used with a noun referring to a non-specific item, or to a specific item when the speaker and audience do not both know what the item is; so, ho spaccaa ona cadrega rossa ("I broke a red chair"). Unlike a/an, the Insubric indefinite article has a plural form, often translated as some but usually simply omitted in English; so, gh'hinn di liber laggiò ("There are some books over there" or "There are books over there"). The indefinite article takes the following forms: singular plural masculine on di feminine ona
Inflection of nouns and adjectives Most of the masculine nouns and adjectives terminate without suffix. This is valid both for the singular and the plural form. Examples are: El milanes ("the milanese") → I milanes ("the milanese people") L'amis ("the friend") → I amis ("the friends") Most of the feminine singular nouns and adjectives are formed by adding an "-a" as a suffix. The plural, instead, is the same than the masculine form. La milanesa ("the milanese woman") → I milanes ("the milanese women") L'amisa ("the girlfriend") → I amis ("the girlfriends").
Variants Creation of the feminine formThe feminine form is not created by simply adding an "-a" when the word ends with: -aa, -ii, -uu → -ada, -ida, -uda El fidanzaa ("the fiancé") → La fidanzada ("the fiancé") Veduu ("seen", masc.) → Veduda ("seen", fem.) Creation of the plural form for masculine nounsNouns do not change form when they become plural unless the word terminates with: -e, -o → -i El corno ("the horn") → I corni ("the horns") -on → -oni (even if also "-on" is acceptedEl canton ("the corner" or "the canton") → I canton ("the corners" or "the cantons")) El canton ("the corner" or "the canton") → I cantoni ("the corners" or "the cantons") -tt → -cc El tett ("the roof") → I tecc ("the roofs"), unless -ett is vezzegiativ -ll → -j El cavall ("the horse") → I cavaj ("horses") -in → if diminutive: -itt, otherwise: -in El bagain ("the little boy") → I bagaitt ("the little boys") but, El cammin ("the pathway") → I cammin ("the pathways") Creation of the plural form for feminine nouns -a → – La nevoda ("the granddaughter" or "the niece") → I nevod ("the granddaughters" or "the nieces") -nia → -gn La linia ("the line") → I lign ("the lines") -ca, -ga → -ch, -gh La cadrega ("the chair") → I cadregh ("the chairs") -òa, -ea → -ia -oa, -ua → -ov (La lengua, i lengov) La lengua ("the tongue") → I lengov ("the tongues") -ma, -na → -mm, -nn Carina ("nice", fem. sing.) → Carinn ("nice", plur.) -tt → -cc La nòtt ("the night") → I nòcc ("the nights") -bra, -dra, -gra, -pra, -tra, -vra > -ber, -der, -gher, -per, -ter, -ver La Scendra ("the ash") → I scender ("the ashes")
Nouns Every Insubric noun has a grammatical gender, either masculine or feminine. There is no case inflection. Articles and adjectives agree in gender and number with the noun they refer to. Usually, masculine nouns are unmarked whilst feminine nouns carry the suffix "-a"; the plural is unmarked, like the masculine feminine. Thus, the most common declension paradigm for Western Lombard names is the one that follows: + Example: declension of gatt ("cat") singular plural masculine gatt gatt feminine gatta For exceptions, see Insubric grammar#Variants
Gender inflection The grammatical gender of a noun referring to a human usually corresponds to the noun's natural gender (i.e. its referent's sex or gender). For such nouns, there will very often be one noun of each gender, with the choice of noun being determined by the natural gender of the person described; for example, a male writer is a scrittor, while a female writer is a scrittora. Alike other Latin languages, a plural noun that refers to both males and females is masculine.
Alteration As in Italian, Portuguese, and Spanish, in Western Lombard altered nouns are nouns with particular shades of meaning. They are divided into diminutives, "vezzegiativ" (diminutives with kindness and sympathy nuance), augmentatives, and pejoratives. SuffixRole Example "-on" augmentative alber ("tree") alberon "-ott" augmentative + vezzegiativ/pejorative scior ("mister") sciorott ("squire") "-in" (remember the plural form: "-itt") diminutive bagai ("boy") bagain "-ett" (remember the plural form: -itt) diminutive + vezzegiativ "vegg" ("old") vegett ("old man") "-ell" diminutive + vezzegiativ pover ("poor") poverell ("poor man") "-oeu" (solo m.) vezzegiativ can ("dog") cagnoeu "-asc" pejorative (often in an ironic meaning) savor ("taste") savorasc "-usc" pejorative + diminutive (it's used with worthless things and people) dottor ("actor") dottorusc
Pronouns Personal pronouns Western Lombard features a sizeable set of pronouns. Personal pronouns are inflected for person, number, case, and, in the third person, gender. Personal pronouns are normally dropped in the subject, as the conjugation is usually enough to determine the grammatical person. They are used when some emphasis is needed, e.g. son lombard ("I am Lombard") vs. mi son lombard ("I [specifically, as opposed to others] am Lombard"). + Insubric personal pronouns Nominative Dative Accusative Reflexive Tonic form Proclitic subject Proclitic form Enclitic form Stressed form Proclitic form Enclitic form sg. 1st mi (a) mi -m a mi me -m me (se) 2nd ti te ti -t a ti te -t te se 3rd m. lù el/l' ghe -gh a lù el/l'/la -l el se f. lee la a lee l'/la -la la se pl. 1st num (or nunch) (a) ghe -gh a num ghe -gh se 2nd informal vialter (a) ve -v a vialter ve -v ve (se) formal vuu 3rd lor i ghe -gh a lor i -i (i) se
Possessive pronouns possessed singular plural masculine feminine possessor 1st person singular el mè la mia i mè plural el noster la nostra i noster 2nd person singular el tò la tua i tò plural el voster la vostra i voster 3rd person singular el sò la sua i soeu plural
Verbs Western Lombard verbs express an action or a state of being of a given subject, and like verbs in most of the Indo-European languages, Insubric verbs undergo inflection according to the following categories: Tense: past, present or future. Mood: indicative, subjunctive, conditional, imperative, infinitive, gerundive or participle. Aspect: perfective or imperfective. Voice: active or passive. Verbs in the finite moods (indicative, imperative, subjunctive, and conditional) are conjugated to agree with their subjects in person (first, second, or third) and number (singular or plural). As in Italian, the subject may be tacit (Insubric is a null-subject language).