The Salafi movement, or Salafism (), emerged in the late 19th century and has been influential in the Islamic world to this day. The name "Salafiyyah is a self-designationAli, Mohamed. "Understanding Salafis, Salafism and Modern Salafism." Islamiyyat: International Journal of Islamic Studies 41.1 (2019). that claims a return to the traditions of the predecessors (, the first three generations of Muslims (the Islamic prophet Muhammad and the [his companions], the second generation, the , and the third generation, the ), who are believed to exemplify the pure form of Islam. In practice, Salafis claim that they rely on the Quran, the and the (consensus) of the , giving these writings precedence over what they claim as "later religious interpretations".Bin Ali Mohamed Roots Of Religious Extremism, The: Understanding The Salafi Doctrine Of Al-wala' Wal Bara World Scientific, 2015 p. 61 The Salafi movement aimed to achieve a renewal of Muslim life, and had a major influence on many Muslim thinkers and movements across the Islamic world. Political scientist Gilles Kepel defines Salafism as: A school of thought which surfaced in the second half of the nineteenth century as a reaction to the spread of European ideas. It advocated a return to the traditions of the devout ancestors (salaf in Arabic). Exemplified by the Persian Afghani, the Egyptian Abduh, and the Syrian Rida, it sought to expose the roots of modernity within Muslim civilization—and in the process resorted to a somewhat freewheeling interpretation of the sacred texts.Salafi Muslims oppose bid'ah (religious innovation) and support the implementation of (Islamic law). In its approach to politics, the Salafi movement is sometimes divided by Western academics and journalists into three categories: the largest group being the "purists" (or quietists), who avoid politics; the second largest group being the political Salafis (or Salafi islamists), who maintain regular involvement in politics; and the third group being the jihadi-Salafis, who form a minority and advocate armed struggle to restore early Islamic practice. In legal matters, Salafis advocate (independent reasoning) and oppose (blind faith) to the four schools () of Islamic jurisprudence.
The origins of Salafism are disputed, with some historians like Louis Massignon tracing its origin to the intellectual movement in the second half of the nineteenth century that opposed Westernization emanating from European imperialism (led by al-Afghani, Muhammad Abduh, and Rashid Rida).Kepel, Jihad, 2002, 219–220 However, Afghani and Abduh had not self-described as "Salafi" and the usage of the term to denote them has become outdated today. Abduh's more orthodox student Rashid Rida followed hardline Salafism which opposed Sufism, Shi'ism and incorporated traditional madh'hab system. Rida eventually became a champion of the Wahhabi movement and would influence another strand of conservative Salafis. In the modern academia, Salafism is commonly used to refer to a cluster of contemporary Sunni renewal and reform movements inspired by the teachings of classical theologians—in particular Ibn Taymiyya (1263–1328 CE/661–728 AH). These Salafis dismiss the 19th-century reformers as rationalists who failed to interpret scripture in the most literal, traditional sense.
Conservative Salafis regard Syrian scholars like Rashid Rida ( 1935 CE/ 1354 AH) and Muhibb al-Din al-Khatib ( 1969 CE/ 1389 AH) as revivalists of Salafi thought in the Arab world. Rida's religious orientation was shaped by his association with Salafi scholars who preserved the tradition of Ibn Taymiyya. These ideas would be popularised by Rida and his disciples, immensely influencing numerous Salafi organisations in the Arab world. Some of the major Salafi reform movements in the Islamic world today include the Ahl-i Hadith movement, inspired by the teachings of Shah Waliullah Dehlawi and galvanized through the South Asian jihad of Sayyid Ahmad Shahid; the Wahhabi movement in Arabia; the Padri movement of Indonesia; Algerian Salafism spearheaded by Abdelhamid Ben Badis; and others.
Etymology The term Salafi as a proper noun and adjective had been used during the classical era to refer to the theological school of the early movement. The treatises of the medieval proto-Salafist theologian Taqi al-Din ibn Taymiyya (d. 1328 C.E/ 728 A.H), which played the most significant role in formalizing the creedal, social and political positions of Ahl al-Hadith; constitute the most widely referred classical works in Salafi seminaries.
It is only in modern times that the label Salafi has been applied to a distinct movement and theological creed. Both modernists as well as traditionalists could apply the term. Both movements might have opposite approaches but advocate a belief that Islam has been altered and is in need of a return to a previous form of Islam allegedly practised by the Salafiyya.Hamdeh, Emad. Salafism and traditionalism: Scholarly authority in modern Islam. Cambridge University Press, 2021. p. 25–29
Tenets According to Bernard Haykel, "temporal proximity to the Prophet Muhammad is associated with the truest form of Islam" among many Sunni Muslims. Salafis are first and foremost religious and social reformers engaged in creating and reproducing particular forms of authority and identity, both personal and communal. They define [their] reformist project first and foremost through creedal tenets (i.e., a theology). Also important in its manhaj (Arabic: منهج i.e. Methodology) are certain legal teachings as well as forms of sociability and politics.
The Salafi da'wa is a methodology, but it is not a madhhab (school) in fiqh (jurisprudence) as is commonly misunderstood. Salafis oppose to the Maliki, Shafi'i, Hanbali, Hanafi or Zahirite law schools of Sunni fiqh. The followers of Salafi school identify themselves as Ahlul Sunna wal Jama'ah and are also known as Ahl al-Hadith. The Salafiyya movement champions this early Sunni school of thought, also known as traditionalist theology.
Salafis place great emphasis on practicing actions in accordance with the known sunnah, not only in prayer but in every activity in daily life. For instance, many are careful always to use three fingers when eating, to drink water in three pauses, and to hold it with the right hand while sitting. The main doctrines of Ibn Taymiyya's school, also referred by various academics as "al-Salafiyyah al-Tarikhiyah" (trans: "Historical Salafism") consist of: Revival of "the authentic beliefs and practices" of Salaf al-Salih "Upholding tawhid (oneness of God)" Rejection of partisanship towards madhahib Literalist adherence to religious scriptures Loyalty to Islamic rulers who ruled by Sharia (Islamic law) Objection to bid'ah and heresies
Views on Taqlid (adherence to legal precedent)
The Salafi thought seeks the re-orientation of fiqh (Islamic Jurisprudence) away from taqlid (adherence to the legal precedent of a particular madhhab) and directly back to the Prophet, his Companions and the Salaf. This preferred return to the pure way of the Prophet is termed "Ittiba" (following the Prophet by directly referring to the Scriptures). In legal approach, Salafis usually support independent legal judgement (ijtihad) and reject strict adherence (taqlid) to the four schools of law (madhahib).The Princeton Encyclopedia of Islamic Political Thought, p. 484
Although Muhammad ibn 'Abd al-Wahhab (d. 1792 C.E/ 1206 A.H) had personally rejected the practice of taqlid, Wahhabi scholars sometimes favoured following the Hanbali madhhab and permitted taqlid in following fatwas (juristic legal opinions). The doctrinal rejection of taqlid by Wahhabis would lead to subsequent emergence of prominent Wahhabi ulema such as Sa'd ibn 'Atiq, Abd al-Rahman al-Sa'dii, al-Uthaymin, Ibn Baz, etc.; who would depart significantly from Hanbali law. Leading Salafi scholar al-Albani staunchly opposed following any of the four schools, Hanafi, Hanbali, Maliki or Shafi'i.
Other Salafi movements, however, believe that taqlid is unlawful and challenge the authority of the legal schools. In their perspective, since the madhahib emerged after the era of Salaf al-Salih (pious predecessors); those Muslims who follow a madhhab without directly searching for Scriptural evidences would get deviated. These include the scholars of Ahl-i Hadith movement, Muhammad Nasir al-Din al-Albani (d. 1999), Muḥammad Ḥayāt al-Sindhī (d. 1750), Ibn 'Amir al-Ṣanʿānī (d. 1182), al-Shawkānī (d. 1834), etc.; who completely condemn taqlid (imitation), rejecting the authority of the legal schools, and oblige Muslims to seek religious rulings (fatwa) issued by scholars exclusively based on the Qur'an and Hadith; with no intermediary involved."From there he [Albani] learned to oppose taqlid in a madhab." Bennett, The Bloomsbury Companion to Islamic Studies, p. 174. "Al-Albani had denounced Wahhabi attachment to the Hanbali school." Stephane Lacroix, George Holoch, Awakening Islam, p. 85 The Ahl-i Hadith ulema would distinguish themselves from the Wahhabis who followed the Hanbali school while they considered themselves as following no particular school. In contemporary era, al-Albani and his disciples, in particular, would directly criticise Wahhabis on the issue of taqlid due to their affinity towards the Hanbali school and called for a re-generated Wahhabism purified of elements contrary to doctrines of the Salaf.
Other Salafi scholars like Sayyid Rashid Rida (d. 1935) follow a middle course, allowing the layperson to do taqlid only when necessary, obliging him to do Ittiba when the Quranic evidences become known to him. Their legal methodology rejects partisanship to the treatises of any particular schools of law, and refer to the books of all madhahib. Following Ibn Taymiyya and Ibn Qayyim, these scholars accept the rich literary heritage of Sunni fiqh and consider the literature of the four Sunni law-schools as beneficial resources to issue rulings for the contemporary era. At the far end of the spectrum, some Salafis hold that adhering to taqlid is an act of shirk (polytheism)."For many Salafis, both modernist and conservative, "worship" of created beings includes practicing taqlid within a madhab of fiqh." Bennett, The Bloomsbury Companion to Islamic Studies, p. 165
Contemporary Salafis generally discard the practice of adhering to the established rulings of any particular Madhhab, condemning the principle of taqlid (blind imitation) as a bid'ah (innovation) and are significantly influenced by the legal principles of the Zahirite school, historically associated with anti-madhhab doctrines that opposed the canonization of legal schools. Early Zahirite scholar Ibn Hazm's condemnation of taqlid and calls to break free from the interpretive system of the canonized schools by espousing a fiqh directly grounded on Qur'an and Hadith; have conferred a major impact on the Salafiyya movement. Salafi legalism is most often marked by its departure from the established rulings (mu'tamad) of the four Sunni madhahib, as well as frequently aligning with Zahirite views mentioned by Ibn Hazm in his legal compendium Al-Muhalla.
Scholarly hierarchy Bernard Haykel notes that due to the peculiarity of its methodology, Salafis enjoy a relatively less rigid scholarly hierarchy of authorities (ulema). Most Salafis unlike other traditional and pre-modern Muslims do not subscribe to a hierarchy that rigorously "constrains and regulates... the output of opinions". As an interpretive community, Salafi tradition, "in contrast to other Muslim traditions of learning", is "relatively open, even democratic".
Methodology and hermeneutics