Ankhkheperure-Merit-Neferkheperure/Waenre/Aten Neferneferuaten (),Neferneferuaten in hieroglyphs © 2011–2025 Peter Lundström | v. 5.0, CC BY 4.0 License or "Neferneferuaten", is the name of a queen regnant ('female king') of ancient Egypt who reigned in her own right near the end of the Amarna Period during the Eighteenth Dynasty. Her name features feminine gender traces, and one of her epithets was Akhet-en-hyes ("Beneficial for her husband"). This epithet also features in one version of her nomen (birth name) cartouche.M. Gabolde, 'Under a Deep Blue Starry Sky', in P. Brand (ed.), Causing His Name to Live: Studies in Egyptian Epigraphy and History in Memory of William J. Murnane, Leiden: E. J. Brill Academic Publishers, pp. 17–21 (See Ancient Egyptian royal titulary.) The name Neferneferuaten translates as "Perfect/Beautiful is the perfection/beauty of Aten".Biblical Archaeological Library What's in a Name?: Nefertiti BAR 2024
There is debate among Egyptologists whether Neferneferuaten is to be identified with Pharaoh Smenkhkare (with whom she shared the throne name Ankhkheperure), or whether they were separate individuals, with Nefertiti, Akhenaten's queen, often proposed as a candidate for her identity.
Summary Most Egyptologists accept that she was a woman, and likely an individual separate from the male king Smenkhkare. Many specialists in the period believe the epigraphic evidence strongly indicates that she acted for a time as Akhenaten's coregent. Since Nefertiti already held the title of "Neferneferuaten" during Akhenaten's reign,Nefertiti: The Beautiful One Has Come… but from where? Cairo Museum it is quite reasonable to identify her as the female pharaoh named Neferneferuaten who succeeded Akhenaten on the throne after the latter died and was later succeeded, in turn, by Akhenaten's son, Tutankhamun.
Based on the Pairi or Pawah inscription dated to her third regnal year, it appears she enjoyed a sole reign. How much of her reign was as coregent and how much as sole ruler is a matter of debate and speculation. The same tomb inscription mentions an Amun temple in Thebes, perhaps a mortuary complex, which would seem to indicate that the Amun proscription had abated and the traditional religion was being restored toward the end of her reign.Dodson, Amarna Sunset 2009, pp. 44–46 Since much of her funeral equipment was used in Tutankhamen's burial, it seems fairly certain she was denied a pharaonic burial by her successor.Dodson, Amarna Sunset 2009, pp. 51–52 The reasons for this remain speculative, as does a regency with Tutankhaten.
Female king
In the early 1970s, English Egyptologist John Harris noted in a series of papers that cartouches for Neferneferuaten existed that included feminine indicators.J. R. Harris, Neferneferuaten, "Göttinger Miszellen" 4 (1973), 15–17; Neferneferuaten Rediviva, "Acta Orientalia" 35 (1973), 5–13; Neferneferuaten Regnans, "Acta Orientalia" 36 (1974), 11–21; Akhenaten or Nefertiti?, "Acta Orientalia" 38 (1977), 5–10. These were linked with a few items including a statuette found in Tutankhamun's tomb depicting a king whose appearance was particularly feminine, even for Amarna art that seems to favor androgyny.
In 1988, James P. Allen proposed that it was possible to separate Smenkhkare from Neferneferuaten. He pointed out the name 'Ankhkheperure' was rendered differently depending on whether it was associated with Smenkhkare or Neferneferuaten. When coupled with Neferneferuaten, the prenomen included an epithet referring to Akhenaten (such as 'desired of Wa en Re'). There were no occasions where the 'long' version of the prenomen (Ankhkheperure plus epithet) occurred alongside the nomen 'Smenkhkare', nor was the 'short' prenomen (without epithet) ever found associated with the nomen 'Neferneferuaten'. Additionally, a feminine 't' glyph is often present in the prenomen, nomen, or epithets. Later, the French Egyptologist Marc Gabolde noted that several items from the tomb of Tutankhamun, originally inscribed for Neferneferuaten and initially thought to read "...desired of Akhenaten", when translated correctly, were inscribed as Akhet-en-hyes or "effective for her husband". His reading was later confirmed by James Allen.
The use of epithets (or lack of them) to identify the king referenced in an inscription eventually became widely accepted among scholars and regularly cited in their work Allen (1994); Gabolde (1998); Eaton-Krauss and Krauss(2001); Hornung (2006); von Beckerath (1997); Allen (2006); Krauss (2007); Murnane (2001)They otherwise hold very different views on the succession, chronology, and identity of Neferneferuaten. although a case for exempting a particular inscription or instance will occasionally be argued to support a larger hypothesis. The "female king" identity is also supported by the feminine form of "the justified" under the prenomen Ankhkheperure-Mery-Waenre.Nozomu Kawai, "Neferneferuaten from the Tomb of Tutankhamun Revisited" in Wonderful Things Essays in Honor of Nicholas Reeves (2023), p. 113
Manetho's Aegyptiaca Manetho was an Egyptian priest of the third century BC, in the early years of the Hellenistic period, a thousand years after the Amarna Period. His lost literary work Aegyptiaca (History of Egypt), written in Greek and now known only in fragmentary form from later writers claiming to quote his work, is the sole ancient record available. Because of the deliberate suppression of histories of the Amarna succession by rulers that followed, Manetho's Amarna Period sources were incomplete at best.
Manetho's Epitome, a later epitome (summary) of Manetho's work, describes the late Eighteenth Dynasty succession as Orus or "Amenophis for 30 years 10 months".Josephus © 2011–2023 by Peter Lundström — Some Rights Reserved — V. 4.0 After Orus, who is most likely Amenhotep III, comes "his daughter Acencheres for 12 years 1 month then her brother Rathotis for 9 years". According to Marc Gabolde, Acencheres is AnkhkheperureGabolde, Marc. D'Akhenaton à Tout-ânkhamon, 1998; pp. 145–185 with a transcription error converting 2 years, 1 month into the 12 years, 1 month reported (Africanus and Eusebius cite 32 and 16 years for this person). Akhenaten is not even mentioned in the most accurate 18th dynasty regnal list of the epitome of Aegyptiaca compiled by Josephus in Contra Apionem. Most scholars agree that Rathotis refers to Tutankhamun; therefore, the succession order also supports Acencheres as Ankhkheperure. Manetho states that Rathotis is followed by "his son Acencheres for 12 years 5 months, his son Acencheres II for 12 years 3 months",Manetho, The Loeb Classical Library; 1940, English translation by W. G. Waddell, p 102–103 which demonstrates the limits to which Manetho may be relied upon for accuracy about the Amarna Period.
Marc Gabolde theorized that the "Acencheres" referenced by the third century BC Egyptian priest Manetho was a form of "Ankhkheperure". According to Manetho in Aegyptiaca (History of Egypt), the late Eighteenth Dynasty Orus was succeeded by "his daughter Acencheres for 12 years 1 month then her brother Rathotis for 9 years". According to Gabole, a transcription error converted 2 years, 1 month into the 12 years, 1 month reported (Africanus and Eusebius cite 32 and 16 years for this person). Another possibility is that Ankhkheperure Neferneferuaten was another of the Achencheres kings who ruled for 2 years and 5 months or 2 years and 3 months once one deducts a superfluous 10 years from her recorded reign all of which accord well with her highest known date—her Year 3 which implies a minimal reign of 2 to 3 years in the Egyptian dating system.
Identity By the late twentieth century, there was "'a fair degree of consensus'"Miller, J; Amarna Age Chronology and the Identity of Nibhururiya in the Light of a Newly Reconstructed Hittite Text in Altoriental. Forsch. 34 (2007); p. 272 that Neferneferuaten was a female king and Smenkhkare a separate male king, particularly among specialists of the period.e.g. Murnane, J.; The End of the Amarna Periode Once Again, (2001); Allen, J 1998, 2006; Gabolde, M.; Das Ende der Amarnazeit, (2001); Hornung, E; The New Kingdom in Ancient Egyptian Chronology (2006); Miller, J. Amarna Age Chronology (2007); Dodson A.; Amarna Sunset (2009) Many Egyptologists believe she also served as coregent on the basis of the stela and epithets, although a sole reign seems very likely, given that the Pairi inscription is dated using her regnal years. Opinion is more divided on the placement and nature of the reign of Smenkhkare in relation to her.
Most Egyptologists see the two names to indicate two separate individuals and consider this as the simplest and more likely view.Allen, James P., "The Amarna Succession", in Causing His Name to Live: Studies in Egyptian Epigraphy and History in Memory of William J. Murnane, p. 2Murnane, W.; The End of the Amarna Period Once Again, 2001 Most name changes in the Amarna period involved people incorporating -Aten into their name or removing an increasingly offensive -Amun element.
The focus now shifts to the identity of Neferneferuaten, with each candidate having its own advocate(s), a debate that may never be settled to the satisfaction of all. Akhenaten is known to have died in his 17th year from wine docket evidence found at Amarna.David Aston, RADIOCARBON, WINE JARS AND NEW KINGDOM CHRONOLOGY*, Ägypten und Levante/Egypt and the Levant 22, 2012, pp. 293–294
Nefertiti
Even among Egyptologists who advocate for the identification of Nefertiti as Neferneferuaten, the exact nature of her reign can vary. Nefertiti was an early candidate for King Neferneferuaten, first proposed in 1973 by J. R. Harris.Harris, J. R. Neferneferuaten Rediviva; 1973 in "Acta Orientalia" 35 pp. 5–13 Harris, J. R. Neferneferuaten Regnans; 1973 in Göttinger Miszellen 4 pp. 15–17 The apparent use of a portion of her name made her an obvious candidate even before Neferneferuaten's gender was firmly established. Remains of painted plaster bearing the kingly names of Neferneferuaten found in the Northern Palace, long believed to be the residence of Nefertiti, supports the association of Nefertiti as the king.Dodson, A; Amarna Sunset (2009) p. 43 Nefertiti was in the forefront during her husband's reign and even depicted engaging in kingly activities such as smiting the enemies of Egypt.Giles, Frederick. J., Ikhnaton Legend and History; 1970; Associated University Press; 1972 US; p 59 The core premise is that her prominence and power in the Amarna Period was almost unprecedented for a great royal wife, which makes her the most likely and most able female to succeed Akhenaten.Giles, F; 1972Dodson, A; Amarna Sunset, The American University in Cairo Press, 2009
More importantly, Nefertiti is known to have held the title of "Neferneferuaten" during Akhenaten's reign when she was his Great Queen or "The Beautiful One has Come".Nefertiti: The Beautiful One Has Come… but from where? The Egyptian Museum Until 2012, Nefertiti's last dated depiction was from Year 12 of Akhenaten's reign, which suggested that she had died shortly after. However, she is now known to have still been alive in the second to last year of Akhenaten's reign and still bearing the title of Great Royal Wife, based on an ink inscription dated explicitly to 'Year 16 III Akhet day 15' [of Akhenaten] in a limestone quarry at Dayr Abū Ḥinnis. This inscription would argue against a coregency of more than about a year, if at all, as the inscription attests to Nefertiti's position still as Akhenaten's great royal wife—and not a pharaoh with a royal title—just before the start of Akhenaten's final year.