The exilarch was the leader of the Jewish community in Mesopotamia (modern-day Iraq) during the Parthian and Sasanian Empires and Abbasid Caliphate up until the 1258 CE Mongol invasion of Baghdad, with intermittent gaps due to ongoing political developments. The exilarch was regarded by the Jewish community as the royal heir of the Davidic line and held prominence as both a rabbinical authority and a noble within the Persian and Arab courts.
Within the Sasanian Empire, the exilarch was the political equivalent of the Catholicos of the Christian Church of the East and was thus responsible for community-specific organizational tasks such as running the rabbinical courts, collecting taxes from Jewish communities, supervising and providing financing for the Talmudic academies in Babylonia, and the charitable re-distribution and financial assistance to needy members of the exile community. The position of exilarch was hereditary, held in continuity by a family that traced its patrilineal descent from antiquity stemming from King David.Max A Margolis and Alexander Marx, A History of the Jewish People (1927), p. 235.
The first historical documents referring to it date from the time when Babylonia was part of the late Parthian Empire. The office first appears in the 2nd century and continues through the middle of the 6th century under different Persian dynasties (the Parthians and Sassanids). In the late 5th and early 6th centuries, Mar-Zutra II briefly ruled a politically independent state from Mahoza for about 7 years. He was eventually defeated by Kavadh I, King of Persia, and the office of the exilarch was diminished for some time thereafter. The position was restored to prominence in the 7th century, under the rule of the Arab Caliphate, and the office of exilarch continued to be appointed by Arab authorities through the 11th century.
The exilarch's authority came under considerable challenge in 825 during the reign of al-Ma'mun who issued a decree permitting a group of ten men from any religious community to organize separately, which allowed the Gaon of the Talmudic academies of Sura and Pumbedita to compete with the exilarch for power and influence, later contributing to the wider schism between Karaites and Rabbinic Jewry.
Title
The word exilarch is a Greco-Latin calque of the Hebrew (), literally meaning 'head of the exile'. The position was similarly called in Aramaic ( or ) and Arabic (). It was translated into Persian as . The Jewish people in exile were referred to as (as in, e.g., Jeremiah 28:6 and Jeremiah 29:1) or . The contemporary Greek term that was used was (), literally meaning the 'leader of the captives'. The Greek term has continued to be applied to the office, notwithstanding changes to the position over time, which were largely titular.
Development and organization
Although there is no mention of the office before the 2nd century, the Seder Olam Zutta alleges that the office of exilarch was established following the deportation of King Jeconiah and his court into exile in Babylon after the first fall of Jerusalem in 597 BCE and augmented after the further deportations following the destruction of the kingdom of Judah in 587. The history of the Babylonian exilarchate falls into two separate identifiable periods: before and after the beginning of the Arabic rule of Babylonia. Nothing is known about the office before the 2nd century, when it is first referenced in the Talmud, including any details about its origins. It can merely be said in general that the golah ("diaspora"), the Jews living in compact masses in various parts of Babylon, tended gradually to unite and create an organization, and that this tendency, together with the high regard in which the descendants of the house of David living in Babylon were held, brought it about that a member of this house was recognized as "head of the golah". The dignity became hereditary in this house and was finally recognized by the state, and hence became an established political institution, first of the Arsacid Empire and then the Sassanid.
Such was the exilarchate as it appears in Talmudic literature, the chief source for its history during the first period, and which provides our only information regarding the rights and functions of the exilarchate. For the second, Arabic period, there is an important and trustworthy description of the institution of the exilarchate (See the sections Installation ceremonies and Income and privileges). This description is also important for the first period as many of the details may be regarded as having persisted from it.
In Baghdad, the privilege of using seals was limited to the exilarch and geonim. Serving under the authority of the caliph, they were extremely powerful as the highest authority for the Jewish people in the Caliphate. The use of seals was not limited to internal matters; their authority was recognized by Muslims as well. Based on the account of Benjamin of Tudela: At the head of them all [the Jews under the Baghdad caliphate] is Daniel the son of Hisdai, who is styled "Our Lord the Head of the Captivity of all Israel." ... he has been invested with authority over all the congregations of Israel at the hands of the Emir al Muminim, the Lord of Islam.
Holders of the office
Biblical exilarchs
The following are exilarchs mentioned in the Seder Olam Zutta; most are likely legendary figures and have parallels in the text of 1 Chronicles 3: Jeconiah or Jehoiachin, one of the last of the Davidic kings of Judah Shealtiel, son of Jehoiachin () Pedaiah, son of She'alti'el () Zerubbabel, son of Pedaiah, who was a son of Jehoiachin (, ) and is mentioned as a governor of the Persian Yehud province. According to the Seder Olam Zutta, Zerubbabel was the son of Shealtiel Mishullum, son of Zerubbavel () Chananya, son of Mishullum () Berachiya, son of Chananya () Hasadaiya, son of Berachiya () Yishaiya, son of Hasadaiya () Ovadyah, son of Arnan, son of Refaiya, son of Chananya, son of Zerubavel. () Shemaiah, son of Ovadya according to the Seder Olam Zutta Shechanya, the son of Shemaiya, according to the Seder Olam Zutta and lived at the time of the destruction of the Second Temple Hezekiah, son of Shechanya according to the Seder Olam Zutta Akuv, son of Elyo'aynai, son of Niarya, son of Shemaiya, son of Shechanya, son of Ovadya, the son of Arnan, son of refaiya, son of Chananya, son of Zerubavel, according to the Seder Olam Zutta, perhaps the same as Ahijah listed below
Rabbinic exilarchs under the Sassanids Probably-historical exilarchs listed in the Seder Olam Zutta or otherwise noted in the Talmud: Ahijah, not mentioned in the Seder Olam Zutta but referred to in the Talmud Nahum, probably the same person known as Nehunyon, roughly from the time of the Hadrianic persecution (135 CE) Johanan, brother of Nahum, who had jurisdictional issues with the Sanhedrin's authority Shaphat, son of Johanan Huna Kamma, also called Anan or Anani, son of Shaphat He is the first exilarch explicitly mentioned as such in Talmudic literature;Horayot 11b a contemporary of Judah ha-Nasi. Died . Nathan Ukban I, living in 226, sometimes confused with Nathan de-Zuzita, son of Shaphat Huna II, son of Nathan Ukban I, died in 297, also Gaon of the academy of Sura Nathan Ukban II, son of Huna II Nehemiah reigning in 313, son of Huna II Mar 'Ukban III, sometimes confused with Nathan de-Zuzita,Recension A. Neubauer, "M. J. C." ii. 71. reigning in 337, son of NehemiahShabbat 56b Huna III, son of Nehemiah, also known as Huna bar Nathan. Known to the Sassanid court. Abba, also known as Abemar, son of Huna III Nathan, son of Abba Mar Kahana I, son of Abba Huna IV, son of Mar Kahana I, died 441 Pahda, a non-Davidic usurper Mar Zutra I, brother of Huna IV Merimar, son of Mar Zutra I Kahana II, son of Merimar Huna V, son of Mar Zutra I; executed by Peroz I of Persia in 470 Mar Zutra II, crucified 520 or 502 CE by Kavadh I Huna VI, son of Kahana II, was not installed for some time because of persecution. Possibly identical to Huna V. Died in the plague of 508 Mar Ahunai, did not dare to appear in public for 30 years. Also referred to as Huna VII Kafnai (or Hofnai), the second half of the 6th century Haninai I 580 to 590–591; put to death in 590–591 by Khosrau II for supporting Bahram VI, according to Karaite sources Mar-Zutra III, son of David, son of Hezekiah, son of Huna, who left Babylonia altogether
Rabbinical exilarchs under Arab rule Bostanai, son of Haninai, first of the exilarchs under Arab rule, middle of the 7th century starting around 640 CE Hasdai I, son of Bostanai Baradoi, son of Bostanai Haninai II, son of Baradoi Hasdai II, son of Baradoi Solomon I son of Ḥasdai I, died in 759 Isaac Iskawi I, son of Solomon Judah Zakkai I (or Judah Babawai), son of Isaac Iskawi I Natronai I, Son of Haninai II Moses, son of Isaac Iskawi I Isaac Iskawi II, son of Moses David I, son of Judah Zakkai I Natronai II, son of Judah Zakkai I Judah II, son of David I Hasdai III, son of Natronai II Zakkai I, son of David I Mar Ukban IV, deposed, reinstated 918, deposed again shortly after David II took power in 921, and his brother Josiah (Al-Hasan) was elected anti-exilarch in 930, but David prevailed. David ben Zakkai was the last exilarch to play an important political role in Jewish history. His son Judah survived him only by seven months. At the time of Judah's death, he left a 12-year-old son whose name is unknown. A later exilarch, Hezekiah I, also became gaon of Pumbedita in 1038, but was imprisoned and tortured to death in 1040 Josiah, son of Zakkai Judah III, son of David II Solomon II, son of Josiah Hezekiah I, son of Judah III Azariah, son of Solomon II David III, son of Hezekiah I Hezekiah II, son of David III David IV, son of Hezekiah II Hezekiah III, son of David IV David V, son of Hezekiah III Hasdai IV, son of David V, also called Solomon at times Daniel I, son of Hasdai IV, whom Benjamin of Tudela makes a note of in his journeys Zakkai II Samuel I of Mosul David VI, son of Samuel I Daniel II, son of Zakkai II Samuel II, son of David VI or Azariah Jesse, defended Moses ben Maimon's work against the slander of Solomon ben Samuel Petit Sar Shalom, son of Pinhas
Karaite exilarchs
The following is a list of Karaite exilarchs beginning in the 8th century, after the end of the tenure of the exilarch David I: Anan ben David, son of David ben Judah (c. 715 – c. 795 or 811?), considered to be a major founder of the Karaite movement Saul ben Anan, son of Anan ben David, 8th century Josiah, son of Saul ben Anan Jehoshaphat ben Josiah, son of Josiah ben Saul, holding office during the early 9th century Boaz ben Jehoshaphat, son of Jehoshaphat ben Josiah, mid-9th century David ben Boaz, son of Boaz ben Jehoshaphat, 10th century Solomon ben David, son of David ben Boaz, late 10th and early 11th centuries. Hezekiah ben Solomon, son of Solomon ben David, sometime in the 11th century Hasdai ben Hezekiah, son of Hezekiah ben Solomon, sometime in the 11th and 12th centuries Solomon ben Hasdai, son of Hasdai ben Hezekiah. During his tenure, many Karaite communities were destroyed by the Seljuks invasion
History
Legendary origins