Old Chosŏn, also known as Gojoseon () and its contemporary name Joseon (), was the first kingdom on the Korean Peninsula. According to Korean mythology, the kingdom was established by the legendary king Tan'gun. Old Chosŏn possessed the most advanced culture in the Korean Peninsula at the time and was an important marker in the progression towards the more centralized states of later periods. The addition of Go (), meaning "old" or "ancient", is used in historiography to distinguish the kingdom from the Joseon, which was founded in 1392.
According to the Samguk yusa, Old Chosŏn was established in 2333 BCE by Tan'gun, who was said to be born from the heavenly prince Hwanung and a bear-woman, Ungnyeo. While Tan'gun is a mythological figure, some interpret his legend as a reflection of the sociocultural conditions of the kingdom's early development. The account of Tan'gun has played an important role in the development of Korean identity. Today, the founding date of Old Chosŏn is officially celebrated as Gaecheonjeol ('National Foundation Day') in Northuriminzokkiri 우리민족끼리 official website of the Democratic People's Republic of Korea and South Korea.
Chinese sources such as the and the Book of Documents claim that in the 12th century BCE, following the establishment of Old Chosŏn, Jizi (also known as Kija), a sage who belonged to the royal family from the Shang dynasty, immigrated to the northern part of the Korean Peninsula and became the founder of Kija Chosŏn. There are many interpretations of Old Chosŏn and Kija Chosŏn as well as debates regarding Kija Chosŏn's existence.
In 194 BCE, the ruling dynasty of Old Chosŏn was overthrown by Wi Man, a refugee from the Han vassal state of Yan,"The term was used again by a refugee from the Han dynasty named Wiman, set up a kingdom in Korea called Wiman Joseon around 200 BC.""The earliest documented event in Korean history involves China. After an unsuccessful uprising against the first Han emperor Gaozu, the defeated rebels sought refuge beyond the imperial frontier and one of them Wiman, took control of Joseon, a Korean state in the north of the peninsula.""For instance, Wiman, a refugee from the Yan dynasty, which then existed around present-day Beijing, led his band of more than 1,000 followers into exile in Old Joseon in the early second century BC.""Retaliation by the Han then brought in refugees from Yan, the most notable of whom was a warlord, Weiman ('Wiman' in Korean), who, somewhere around 200 BC, led his followers into the territory held by Joseon.""Here, Wiman was described as a "Gu Yanren 故燕人"or a person from former Yan. It is confusing because there were two entities named Yan around this period. The first was the Yan state, which was one of the seven states during the Warring States period, and the second was the vassal state of Yan of the Han dynasty." who then established Wiman Joseon.
In 108 BCE, the Han dynasty, under Emperor Wu, invaded and conquered Wiman Joseon. The Han established four commanderies to administer the former Old Chosŏn territory. After the fragmentation of the Han Empire during the 3rd century and the subsequent chaotic 4th century, the area escaped Chinese control and was conquered by Goguryeo in 313 CE.
The capital of Old Chosŏn was Wanggeom-seong (now Pyongyang) from at least the 2nd century BCE. In the southern region of the Korean Peninsula, the Jin state arose by the 3rd century BCE.
Founding myths
There are three different main founding myths concerning Old Chosŏn, which revolve around Tan'gun, Kija, or Wi Man.
Tan'gun myth
The myths revolving around Tan'gun were recorded in the later Korean work Samguk yusa of the 13th century. This work states that Tan'gun, the offspring of a heavenly prince and a bear-woman, founded Old Chosŏn in 2333 BCE, and was succeeded by Kija (Jizi) after King Wu of Zhou had placed him onto the throne in 1122 BCE. A similar account is found in Jewang Ungi. According to the legend, the Lord of Heaven, Hwanin had a son, Hwanung, who descended to Baekdu Mountain and founded the city of Shinsi. Then a bear and a tiger came to Hwanung and said that they wanted to become people. Hwanung said to them that if they went in a cave and lived there for 100 days while only eating mugwort and garlic he would change them into human beings. However, about halfway through the 100 days the tiger gave up and ran out of the cave. The bear, in contrast, successfully restrained herself and became a beautiful woman named Ungnyeo. Hwanung later married Ungnyeo, and she gave birth to Tan'gun.Samguk yusa《삼국유사》(三國遺事).
While the Tan'gun story is considered to be a myth,"An extreme manifestation of nationalism and the family cult was the revival of interest in Tangun, the mythical founder of the first Korean state... Most textbooks and professional historians, however, treat him as a myth."
"Although Kija may have truly existed as a historical figure, Tangun is more problematical."
"Most [Korean historians] treat the [Tangun] myth as a later creation."
"The Tangun myth became more popular with groups that wanted Korea to be independent; the Kija myth was more useful to those who wanted to show that Korea had a strong affinity to China."
"If a choice is to be made between them, one is faced with the fact that the Tangun, with his supernatural origin, is more clearly a mythological figure than Kija." it is believed it is a mythical synthesis of a series of historical events relating to the founding of Old Chosŏn. There are various theories on the origin of this myth. Seo and Kang (2002) believe the Tan'gun myth is based on integration of two different tribes, an invasive sky-worshipping Bronze Age tribe and a native bear-worshipping neolithic tribe, that led to the foundation of Old Chosŏn. Lee K. B. (1984) believes 'Tan'gun-wanggeom' was a title borne by successive leaders of Old Chosŏn.
Tan'gun is said to have founded Old Chosŏn around 2333 BCE, based on the descriptions of the Samguk yusa, Jewang Ungi, Tongguk t'onggam and the Annals of the Joseon Dynasty.국학원 제24회 학술회의 – 단기 연호 어떻게 볼 것인가 – 단기가 최초로 산정된 것은 《동국통감》으로 요임금 즉위 25년 무진년을 기준으로 삼았다. 《동국통감》〈외기〉 의 주석에는 다음과 같은 해석이 실려있다. – 古記云, 檀君與堯竝立於戊辰, 虞夏至商武丁八年乙未, 入阿斯達山爲神, 享壽千四百十八年. 此說可疑今按, 堯之立在上元甲子甲辰之歲, 而檀君之立在後二十五年戊辰, 則曰與堯竝立者非也. 이에 대한 한글 해석은 네이버 지식백과 국역 동국통감(국역:세종대왕기념사업회) 에서 확인할 수 있다. The date differs among historical sources, although all of them put it during the mythical Emperor Yao's reign (traditional dates: 2357 BCE? – 2256 BCE?). Samguk yusa says Tan'gun ascended to the throne in the 50th year of the legendary Yao's reign, Annals of the King Sejong says the first year, and Tongguk t'onggam says the 25th year.Yoon, N.-H. (윤내현), The Location and Transfer of Go-Chosun's Capital (고조선의 도읍 위치와 그 이동), 단군학연구, 7, pp. 207–38. (2002).
In the 7th century BCE, the Yan pioneered the Northeast regions. According to The Growth of Yan and The Context of Guanzi,Guanzi(管子) > 桓公問管子曰 吾聞 海內玉幣有七筴 可 得以聞乎 管子對曰 陰山之礌礝 一筴也 燕之紫山白金 筴也 發朝鮮之文皮 筴也 : Records of trade between Gojoseon and Qi it can be presumed that Old Chosŏn grew through trade in this era. It is estimated that Old Chosŏn developed so far as to be able to wage war against the Yan in the 4th century BCE.
Kija myth
Kija, a man from the period of the Shang dynasty, allegedly fled to the Korean peninsula in 1122 BCE during the fall of the Shang to the Zhou dynasty and founded Kija Chosŏn. Kija Chosŏn is recognized and mentioned in the earliest surviving Chinese record, Records of the Three Kingdoms. No contemporary Korean sources existed for Kija Chosŏn, and the oldest sources produced in Korea were from the Goryeo dynasty. The earliest Korean record about Kija Chosŏn can be seen from Samguk Yusa.Ilyon, Samguk Yusa, translated by T. Ha & G. Mintz (1997), Yonsei University Press, p. 33.
By the middle of Goryeo dynasty, a state cult had developed around Kija. The Dongsa Gangmok of 1778 described Kija's activities and contributions in Old Chosŏn. The records of Kija refer to Eight Prohibitions (), that are recorded by the Book of Han and evidence a hierarchical society with legal protections of private property.
In pre-modern Korea, Kija represented the authenticating presence of Chinese civilization. Until the 12th century CE, Koreans commonly believed that Tan'gun bestowed upon Korea its people and basic culture, while Kija gave Korea its high culture, and presumably, standing as a legitimate civilisation.Kyung Moon hwang, "A History of Korea: An Episodic Narrative", 2010, p. 4.
Many modern experts have denied Kija Chosŏn's existence for various reasons, mainly due to contradicting archaeological evidence and anachronistic historical evidence. They point to the Bamboo Annals and the Analects of Confucius, which were among the first works to mention Kija, but do not mention his migration to Old Chosŏn. Kija Chosŏn might have just existed as a symbol of the pre-Qin dynasty migrants who escaped the chaos of the Warring States period.Immigrants provided Gojoseon with the opportunity to learn and incorporate advanced technologies, but it is believed that they were only a minor influence (e.g. because the Proto-koreanic language was still used in Gojoseon). It is presumed that later Koreans claimed to be "Gija" for their relations with China and for their desire to be a part of Chinese civilization.
Wi Man Wi Man was a military officer of the Yan of northeastern China who fled to the northern Korean peninsula in 195 BCEfrom the encroaching Han dynasty. He founded a principality with Wanggeom-seong as its capital, which is thought to be in the region of present-day Pyongyang. The 3rd-century Chinese text Weilüe of the Sanguozhi recorded that Wi Man usurped King Jun and thus took over the kingship of Old Chosŏn.This may explain why the Jinhan people claim that they are descendants of the Qin dynasty.
Academic perspectives
Old Chosŏn mythology and history can be divided into three phases, Tan'gun, Kija Chosŏn, and Wi Man Joseon.
Kang & Macmillan (1980), Sohn et al. (1970), Kim J.B. (1980), Han W.K. (1970), Yun N. H. (1985), Lee K.B. (1984), Lee J.B. (1987) viewed the Tan'gun myth as a native product of proto-Koreans, although it is not always associated with Old Chosŏn. Kim J.B. (1987) rejected the Tan'gun myth's association with Old Chosŏn and pushes it further back to the Neolithic period. Sohn et al. (1970) suggested that the Tan'gun myth is associated with the Dongyi, whom they viewed as the ancestors of Koreans. Kim C. (1948) suggested the Tan'gun myth had a Chinese origin, tracing it to a Han dynasty tomb in the Shandong peninsula. Gardiner (1969), Henderson (1959), McCune (1962) considered the Kija myth to be a later conflation. Sohn et al. (1970) dismissed the Kija story as a Chinese fabrication. On the other hand, Hatada (1969), gave Old Chosŏn a Chinese identity, exclusively ascribed it to the Kija myth, and moved it to the 3rd century BCE. Shim Jae-Hoon (2002) accepted the eastward migration of Kija, but denied the relationship between Kija and Joseon, suggesting that the existence of Old Chosŏn could not be extended to the second millennium BCE. Kim C.W. (1966), Han W.K. (1970), Choi M.L. (1983, 1984, 1985, 1992), Han W.K. (1984), Kim J.B. (1987), Lee K.B. (1984) accepted Wi Man as a historical figure. Gardiner (1969) questioned authenticity of the Wi Man myth, although he mentioned there were interactions between Old Chosŏn and the Han dynasty and social unrest in the area during that time period.Cited in
Controversies