The history and culture of breastfeeding traces the changing social, medical and legal attitudes to breastfeeding, the act of feeding a child breast milk directly from breast to mouth. Breastfeeding may be performed by the infant's mother or by a surrogate, typically called a wet nurse.
In most societies, women nurse their own babies unless prevented by illness or death. Before the availability of infant formula, in such situations, unless a wet nurse was found promptly, the baby faced a high risk of starvation and infant mortality rates were high. Wet nurses were a normal part of the social order, though social attitudes to wet nursing varied, as well as to the social status of the wet nurse. Breastfeeding itself began to be seen as common; too common to be done by royalty, even in ancient societies, and wet nurses were employed to breastfeed the children of royal families. This attitude extended over time, particularly in Western Europe, where babies of noble women were often nursed by wet nurses. Lower-class women breastfed their infants and used a wet nurse only if they were unable to feed their own infant.
Attempts were made in 15th-century Europe to use cow or goat milk, but these attempts were not successful. In the 18th century, flour or cereal mixed with broth were introduced as substitutes for breastfeeding, but this was also unsuccessful. Improved infant formulas appeared in the mid-19th century, providing an alternative to wet nursing, and even breastfeeding itself.
During the early 20th century, breastfeeding started to be viewed negatively, especially in Canada and the United States, where it was regarded as a low-class and uncultured practice. The use of infant formulas increased, which accelerated after World War II. From the 1960s onwards, breastfeeding experienced a revival which continued into the 2000s, though negative attitudes towards breastfeeding were still entrenched up to the 1990s.
Early history
In Egypt, Greece and Rome, women usually fed only their own children. However, breastfeeding began to be seen as something too common to be done by royalty, and wet nurses were employed to breastfeed the children of the royal families. This was extended over the ages, particularly in Western Europe, where noble women often made use of wet nurses. The Moche artisans of Peru (1–800 A.D.) represented women breastfeeding their children in ceramic vessels.Larco Hoyle, Rafael. Los Mochicas. Museo Arqueológico Rafael Larco Herrera 2001. Shared breastfeeding is still practiced in many developing countries when mothers need help to feed their children.
Classical mythology In the myth of Heracles, the infant hero was abandoned and brought by either Zeus or Hermes to the sleeping Hera to nurse. When the goddess awoke, she pulled the child from her breast, and the milk that spilled forth created the Milky Way. In another version, Athena presents Heracles to Hera as an abandoned baby, whom the goddess suckled. When he bit her, she pulled him away in pain, and Athena returned him to his mortal parents.Pausanias, Description of Greece 9.25.2 Several authors and scholars state this was what gave Heracles his divine strength.
A Roman exemplum sees a man named Cimon, sentenced to death by starvation, visited by his daughter, Pero. Pero breastfeeds her father to save him and, when the act is discovered by his jailers, both are pardoned. The story was used as an example of filial piety.Book V, 5.4.7
Islam In the Qur'an, it is stated that a child should be breastfed if both parents agree:
Mothers may breastfeed their children two complete years for whoever wishes to complete the nursing ... And if you wish to have your children nursed by a substitute, there is no blame upon you as long as you give payment according to what is acceptable. (parts of Surat al-Baqarah 2:233), Quran Surah Al-Baqara ( Verse 233 )
... and his gestation and weaning [period] is thirty months... (part of Surat al-Ahqaf 46:15), Quran Surah Al-Ahqaf ( Verse 15 )
Islam has recommended breastfeeding for two years until 30 months, either by the mother or a wet nurse. Even in pre-Islamic Arabia children were breastfed, commonly by wet nurses.
18th century
In the 18th century, male medical practitioners started to work in the areas of pregnancy, birth and babies, areas traditionally dominated by women.Schiebinger, Londa (1993). Nature's Body. Gender in the Making of Modern Science. Boston: Beacon Press. Page 69 Also in the 18th century, the emerging natural sciences argued that women should stay at home to nurse and raise their children, like animals also do.Schiebinger, Londa (1993). Nature's Body. Gender in the Making of Modern Science. Boston: Beacon Press. Pages 41–42 Governments in Europe started to worry about the decline of the workforce because of the high mortality rates among newborns. Wet nursing was considered one of the main problems. Campaigns were launched against the custom among the higher class to use a wet nurse. Women were advised or even forced by law to nurse their own children.Schiebinger, Londa (1993). Nature's Body. Gender in the Making of Modern Science. Boston: Beacon Press. Page 68 The biologist and physician Linnaeus, the English doctor Cadogan, Rousseau, and the midwife Anel le Rebours described in their writings the advantages and necessity of women breastfeeding their own children and discouraged the practice of wet nursing. Sir Hans Sloane noted the value of breast-feeding in reducing infant mortality in 1748. His Chelsea manor, which was later converted to a botanic garden, was visited by Carl Linnaeus in 1736. In 1752 Linnaeus wrote a pamphlet against the use of wet nurses. Linnaeus considered this against the law of nature. A baby not nursed by the mother was deprived of the laxative colostrum. Linnaeus thought that the lower-class wet nurses ate too much fat, drank alcohol and had contagious (venereal) diseases, therefore producing lethal milk.Schiebinger, Londa (1993). Nature's Body. Gender in the Making of Modern Science. Boston: Beacon Press. page 68
Mother's milk was considered a miracle fluid which could cure people and give wisdom. The mythical figure Philosophia-Sapientia, the personification of wisdom, suckled philosophers at her breast and by this way they absorbed wisdom and moral virtue.Schiebinger, Londa (1993). Nature's Body. Gender in the Making of Modern Science. Boston: Beacon Press. Page 60 On the other hand, lactation was what connected humans with animals. Linnaeus – who classified the realm of animals – did not by accident rename the category 'quadrupedia' (four footed) in 'mammalia' (mammals). With this act, he made the lactating female breast the icon of this class of animals in which humans were classified.Schiebinger, Londa (1993). Nature's Body. Gender in the Making of Modern Science. Boston: Beacon Press. page 40
19th century Breastfeeding continued to be perceived as an obligation for many women into the 19th century, though "hand raising" had grown in popularity, in part due to the belief that breastfeeding sapped a woman of her energy.
Historian Rima D. Apple writes in her book Mothers and Medicine. A Social History of Infant Feeding, 1890–1950 that in the United States of America most babies received breastmilk.Apple 1987: 16 Dutch historian Van Eekelen researched the small amount of available evidence of breastfeeding practices in The Netherlands. Around 1860 in the Dutch province of Zeeland, about 67% of babies were nursed, but there were big differences within the region.Knecht-van Eekelen, A. de. (1984). Naar een rationele zuigelingenvoeding. Voedingsleer en kindergeneeskunde in Nederland (1840–1914). Proefschrift. Nijmegen: Thieme. Page 222 Women were obliged to nurse their babies: "Every mother ought to nurse her own child, if she is fit to do it (...) no woman is fit to have a child who is not fit to nurse it."Apple, Rima D. (1987). Mothers and Medicine. A Social History of Infant Feeding, 1890–1950. Wisconsin: University of Wisconsin Press. Page 3
Mother's milk was considered best for babies, but the quality of the breastmilk was found to be varied. The quality of breastmilk was considered good only if the mother had a good diet, had physical exercise and was mentally in balance.Apple, Rima D. (1987). Mothers and Medicine. A Social History of Infant Feeding, 1890–1950. Wisconsin: University of Wisconsin Press. Pages 6–7 In Europe (especially in France) and less in the USA it was a practice among the higher and middle class to hire a wet nurse. If it was too difficult to find a wet nurse, people used formula to feed their babies, but this was considered very dangerous for the health and life of the baby.Apple, Rima D. (1987). Mothers and Medicine. A Social History of Infant Feeding, 1890–1950. Wisconsin: University of Wisconsin Press. Page 4
Decline and resurgence in the 20th and 21st centuries Breastfeeding in the Western world experienced a sharp decline from the late 1800s through the 1960s. This drop was largely driven by the rise of pasteurized milk and the commercial availability of infant formula, which became socially and medically promoted alternatives, particularly among upwardly mobile and educated mothers. By the 1950s, breastfeeding had come to be perceived as old-fashioned, associated with lower-class and uneducated women, and even described as "a little disgusting" among the more affluent and professionally endorsed by medical establishments .
Letters and editorials in women's magazines like Chatelaine during 1945–1995 predominantly reflected negative perceptions of breastfeeding, reinforcing the widespread stigma.
However, beginning in the mid‑1960s, a notable resurgence in breastfeeding took hold in Canada and the U.S., led predominantly by more educated and affluent women.
Historical data highlights PeriodInitial breastfeeding at birthBreastfeeding at 6 months1931–35> 70%~ 40%1946–50~ 50%~ 20%Early 1970s~ 25%< 14%
Global targets for exclusive breastfeeding The World Health Assembly (2012) endorsed a global target for exclusive breastfeeding of at least 50% of infants under six months by 2025, consistent with the WHO/UNICEF Global Strategy for Infant and Young Child Feeding.
Current estimates show approximately 44–48% of infants under six months worldwide are exclusively breastfed, indicating progress yet falling slightly short of the target.
Canada