The history of the Russian Orthodox Church begins with the Christianization of Kievan Rus' in 988 during the reign of Vladimir the Great. In the following centuries, Kiev and later other cities, including Novgorod, Pskov, Rostov, Suzdal and Vladimir, became important regional centers of Christian spirituality and culture. Following the 13th-century Mongol invasions, the metropolitan relocated from Kiev to Vladimir in 1299, then to Moscow in 1325, from then on the center of the Russian Orthodox Church.
The metropolitans of the Russian Church supported the rise of the Moscow principality and his presence increased the Muscovite prince's authority and ambition to unify the lands. In turn, the metropolitans were able to increase the stability of the Church and to inspire unity among the divided Russian principalities. By the mid-15th century, Moscow was both the political and religious center of the country. The Russian Church declared autocephaly in 1448, shortly before the fall of Constantinople, owing to its protest over the Council of Florence. At the behest of the grand prince of Moscow, a council of Russian bishops elected a local bishop without the approval of Constantinople.
After Constantinople fell in 1453, Moscow became the only independent Orthodox power and its leaders soon began to advance the claim that Moscow was the successor to the Byzantine Empire. In 1589, the metropolitan was elevated to a patriarch and the independence of the Russian Church was recognized by Constantinople for the first time. In the mid-17th century, a schism in the Church led to the rise of the Old Believer movement. The church reform of Peter the Great occurred in the early 18th century, beginning the Synodal period of the history of the Russian Church that would last until the Russian Revolution of 1917.
The early Bolsheviks repressed the Church, but Joseph Stalin revived the Church in 1941 when faced with the German invasion. For the remainder of the Soviet Union's existence, the Russian Orthodox Church hierarchy and the Communist Party would collaborate and share power, while dissent was repressed. After the dissolution of the Soviet Union, the Church managed to regain much authority in Russian society during the presidency of Vladimir Putin. In 2018, a new schism with Constantinople began following the latter's recognition of the Orthodox Church of Ukraine.
Periodization The history of the Russian Orthodox Church does not follow the typical periodization of Christianity found in Western Europe, which consists of the Middle Ages, the Renaissance, the Reformation and the Enlightenment. Historians have instead organized Russia's history around the political centers to which Christianity has been closely tied. As a result, there is no definitive consensus among scholars on the periodization of the history of the Russian Church, but six periods are usually identified: 988–1448; 1448–1589; 1589–1700; 1700–1917; 1917–1988; and 1988–present.
Early history One of the foundational narratives associated with the history of Orthodoxy in Russia is found in the 12th-century Primary Chronicle, which says that the Apostle Andrew visited Scythia and Greek colonies along the northern coast of the Black Sea before making his way to Chersonesus in Crimea. According to the legend, Andrew reached the future location of Kiev and foretold the foundation of a great Christian city with many churches. Then, "he came to the [land of the] Slovenians where Novgorod now [stands]" and observed the locals, before eventually arriving in Rome. Despite the lack of historical evidence supporting this narrative, modern church historians in Russia have often incorporated this tale into their studies.
In the 10th century, Christianity began to take root in Kievan Rus'. Although Oleg was hostile towards the Church, a series of treaties between the Rus' and the Byzantine Empire resulted in a more favorable view. The first church in Kiev was built in the early 10th century and dedicated to the prophet Elijah. Towards the end of the reign of Igor, Christians are mentioned among the Varangians. In the text about the treaty with the Byzantine Empire in 944–945, the chronicler also records the oath-taking ceremony that took place in Constantinople for Igor's envoys as well as the equivalent ceremony that took place in Kiev.
Igor's wife Olga was baptized sometime in the mid-10th century; however, scholars have disputed the exact year and place of her conversion, with dates ranging from 946 to 960. Most scholars tend to agree that she was baptized in Constantinople, though some argue that her conversion took place in Kiev. Olga's son Sviatoslav opposed conversion, despite persuasion from his mother. There is also little information about Christianity in sources in the period between 969 and 988. A number of missionaries arrived, such as during the reign of Yaropolk I, but their mission turned out to be unsuccessful.
Under the Byzantine patriarch, 988–1448 Christianization
Vladimir seized power in 978 and he was later baptized in 988. Following this, mass baptisms took place. The year 988 was decreed by the Russian Orthodox Church in 1988 as the date of the Christianization of the country. According to the Primary Chronicle, Vladimir had previously sent envoys to investigate the different faiths. It says that Judaism was rejected because the Jews had lost their sovereign territory, while Islam was rejected due to its prohibition of alcohol and other customs that were unpopular. In particular, the eastern church was favored due to its rituals surpassing those of the Roman church.
After receiving glowing reports about Constantinople, Vladimir captured Chersonesus in Crimea and demanded that the sister of Basil II be sent there. The marriage took place on the condition that Vladimir would be also baptized there. Vladimir had lent considerable military support to the Byzantine emperor and may have besieged the city due to it having sided with the rebellious Bardas Phokas. Vladimir was later canonized as a saint with the title "equal to the Apostles", in commemoration of the Christianization of his country. According to Hilarion Alfeyev, "the choice of the 'Greek faith' would translate for the Russian people into a choice of civilization".
Under Vladimir, the metropolis of Kiev was established and it remained under the jurisdiction of the patriarch of Constantinople until 1589. The first metropolitan was Michael, who, according to tradition, was brought by Vladimir from Chersonesus. He was of Bulgar or Assyrian origin. Michael is said to have founded Kiev's first religious house, St. Michael's Golden-Domed Monastery. Its golden domes were among the first in Kievan Rus'. Following the death of Vladimir in 1015, a succession struggle led to conflict between his sons. Boris and Gleb were murdered for resisting Sviatopolk I after he assumed the throne. The two brothers became the first saints of the country after being canonized in 1071.
Hilarion was the first non-Greek metropolitan after he succeeded Theopemptus in 1049. Luka Zhidiata, the second bishop of Novgorod, refused to accept the validity of this as Hilarion was chosen by Grand Prince Yaroslav without the agreement of Constantinople. As a result, Luka was imprisoned until his death. Hilarion has long been revered for his writings, such as the Sermon on Law and Grace. By the early 11th century, Christianity was well-established as the religion of Kievan Rus'. By the early 13th century, some 40 episcopal sees had been established, all of which ultimately answered to Constantinople. After the Mongol invasions, which led to the destruction of Kiev in 1240, religious authority shifted north, to the city of Vladimir. The Vladimir grand principality emerged as the dominant political force, while the city-state of Novgorod in northwest Russia maintained some degree of political and religious autonomy.
Rise of Moscow
The Novgorodian prince Alexander Nevsky, later canonized as a saint, submitted to the Mongols while also stopping the eastward advance of the Teutonic Knights. He became the grand prince of Vladimir and delivered the tribute to the khan in Sarai. The appanage principality of Moscow, which was originally established for Alexander's youngest son Daniel, became one of the leading principalities and it began a steady rise to dominance. After Kiev lost its significance following the Mongol invasions, Metropolitan Maximus moved his seat to Vladimir in 1299, "being unable to tolerate Tatar violence", according to a later chronicle.
His successor, Peter, found himself caught in the conflict between the principalities of Tver and Moscow for supremacy in northwest Russia. Peter allied himself with the prince of Moscow and began looking for a new residence, where he singled out Moscow despite the fact it was "small and had a small population", according to his biographer Cyprian. He wrote that the city of Moscow "was ruled by the pious Grand-prince Ivan, son of Daniel, grandson of the blessed Alexander [Nevsky], whom the blessed Peter saw resplending in Orthodoxy, merciful to the poor, honouring the holy churches of God and the clergy, loving divine Scriptures, well instructed in the teachings of the books. So the holy hierarch of God [Peter] loved him very much". Peter moved his residence to Moscow in 1325 and became a strong ally of the prince of Moscow. During Peter's tenure in Moscow, the foundation for the Dormition Cathedral was laid and Peter was buried there. By choosing to reside and be buried in Moscow, Peter had designated Moscow as the future center of the Russian Orthodox Church.
Peter was succeeded by Theognostus, who, like his predecessor, pursued policies that supported the rise of the Moscow principality. During the first four years of his tenure, the Dormition Cathedral was completed and an additional four stone churches were constructed in Moscow. By the end of 1331, Theognostus was able to restore ecclesiastical control over Lithuania. Theognostus also proceeded with the canonization of Peter in 1339, and requested an official document from Patriarch John Calecas to recommend the start of liturgical veneration, which helped to increase Moscow's prestige. According to John Meyendorff, most Byzantine diplomats and ecclesiastics were distrustful of Lithuania and believed that Moscow's policy of appeasing the Mongols better matched Byzantine interests. His successor Alexius lost ecclesiastical over Lithuania in 1355, but kept the traditional title.
Alexius, who was given the title Wonderworker of All Russia, was the most significant of early Russian prelates. He originally joined the Epiphany Monastery in Moscow, where the monks Gerontius and Stephen became his guides, and he eventually came to the attention of Metropolitan Theognostus. Like Alexander Nevsky, he visited the khan's court in Sarai, and according to legend, he cured the blindness of Taydula Khatun, a consort of the khan. He also founded several monasteries, notably the Andronikov Monastery and the Chudov Monastery. Another significant religious figure was Sergius of Radonezh, who exerted the greatest influence of any personage on the Russian Church. He founded the Trinity Lavra of St. Sergius, what is now the most venerated monastic house in Russia. Sergius is also said to have bestowed upon Grand Prince Dmitry the victory against the Mongols in the 1380 Battle of Kulikovo with the help of the monks Alexander Peresvet and Rodion Oslyabya.