, also known as the , was a shamaness-queen of Yamatai-koku in . Early Chinese dynastic histories chronicle tributary relations between Queen Himiko and the Cao Wei Kingdom (220–265) and record that the Yayoi period people chose her as ruler following decades of warfare among the kings of Wa. Early Japanese histories do not mention Himiko, but historians associate her with legendary figures such as Empress Consort Jingū, who is said to have served as regent from 201 to 269.
Scholarly debates over the identity of Himiko and the location of her domain, Yamatai, have raged since the late Edo period, with opinions divided between northern Kyūshū or traditional Yamato Province in present-day Kinki. The "Yamatai controversy", writes Keiji Imamura, is "the greatest debate over the ancient history of Japan." A prevailing view among scholars is that she may be buried at Hashihaka Kofun in Nara Prefecture.
She came to power aged 20 in 190, and died in either 247 or 248.
Historical references The shaman queen Himiko is recorded in various ancient histories, dating back to 3rd-century China, 8th-century Japan, and 12th-century Korea.
Chinese sources
The first historical records of Himiko are found in the Records of the Three Kingdoms (), a Chinese classic text dating to . Japanese scholars excerpted the passages relating to the Wa from volume 30 of the "Book of Wei" () of the Records and refer to them as the .岩波文庫では書名の一部として「魏志倭人伝」の五文字を採用している。 This section is the first description of Himiko and Yamatai:
This early history describes how Himiko came to the throne:
The "Records of Wei" also records envoys travelling between the Wa and Wei courts. Himiko's emissaries first visited the court of Wei emperor Cao Rui in 238, and he replied:
Finally, the "Records of Wei" records that in 247 when a new governor arrived at Daifang Commandery in Korea, Queen Himiko officially complained of hostilities with , the king of Kuna (ja) (, literally "dog slave"), one of the other Wa states. The governor dispatched "Chang Chêng, acting Secretary of the Border Guard" with a "proclamation advising reconciliation", and subsequently:
Commentators take this 'Iyo' (, with , "one", an old variant of ) as a miscopy of Toyo (, with "platform; terrace") paralleling the writing () as ().
Two other Chinese dynastic histories mentioned Himiko. While both clearly incorporated the reports, they made some changes, such as specifying the "some seventy or eighty years" of Wa wars occurred between 146 and 189, during the reigns of Han Emperors Huan and Ling. The Book of Later Han ( ) says "the King of Great Wa resides in the country of Yamadai", rather than the Queen:
The 636 Book of Sui () changes the number of Himiko's male attendants:
Japanese sources Neither of the two oldest Japanese histories – the nor – mentions Queen Himiko. The circumstances under which these books were written is a matter of unending debate, and even if Himiko were known to the authors, they may have purposefully decided not to include her. However, they include three imperial-family shamans identified with her: Princess Yamato-totohi-momoso, the aunt of Emperor Sujin (legendary 10th Japanese emperor, reigned 97–30 BC) and daughter of Emperor Kōrei; Yamatohime-no-mikoto, the daughter of Emperor Suinin (legendary 11th, reigned 29 BC–70 AD); and Empress Jingū (reigned AD), the wife of Emperor Chūai (legendary 14th emperor, reigned 192–200 AD). These dates, however, are not historically verified.
One remarkable exception to early Japanese histories overlooking Himiko is the , quoting the three times. In 239, "the queen [] of Wa" sent envoys to Wei; in 240, they returned "charged with an Imperial rescript and a seal and ribbon;" and in 243, "the ruler [ "king"] of Wa again sent high officers as envoys with tribute".
Princess Yamato-totohi-momoso, the shaman aunt of Emperor Sujin, supposedly committed suicide after learning her husband was a trickster snake-god. The does not mention her, but the describes her as "the Emperor's aunt by the father's side, a shrewd and intelligent person, who could foresee the future". After a series of national calamities, the Emperor "assembled the 80 myriads of Deities" and inquired by divination. Yamato-totohi-momoso was inspired by Ōmononushi-nushi ("Great Deity of All Deities and Spirits"), to say: "Why is the Emperor grieved at the disordered state of the country? If he duly did us reverent worship it would assuredly become pacified of itself." The Emperor inquired, saying: "What God is it that thus instructs me?" The answer was: "I am the God who dwells within the borders of the land of Yamato, and my name is Oho-mono-nushi no Kami." While imperial worship of this god (from Mount Miwa) was "without effect", Yamato-totohi-momoso later married him.
The Hashihaka Kofun ("chopstick tomb") in Sakurai, Nara is associated with this legend.
Yamatohime-no-mikoto, the daughter of Emperor Suinin, supposedly founded the Ise Shrine to the sun-goddess Amaterasu. The records her as the fourth of Suinin's five children, "Her Augustness Yamato-hime, (was the high-priestess of the temple of the Great Deity of Ise)". The likewise records "Yamato-hime no Mikoto" and provides more details. The Emperor assigned Yamato-hime to find a permanent location for Amaterasu's shrine, and after wandering for years, the sun-goddess instructed her to build it at Ise "where she first descended from Heaven".
Empress Consort Jingū (or ) supposedly served as regent after the death of her husband Emperor Chūai () until the accession of her son Emperor Ōjin (legendary 15th emperor, ). The and have similar accounts. Emperor Chūai wanted to invade Kumaso, and while he was consulting with his ministers, Jingū conveyed a shamanistic message that he should invade Silla instead. Compare these:
The Emperor thought the gods were lying, said he had only seen ocean to the West, and then died, either immediately () or after invading Kumaso (). Jingū allegedly discovered she was pregnant, personally planned and led a successful conquest of Silla, gave birth to the future emperor, and returned to rule Yamato. The adds that since Jingū wanted to learn which gods had cursed Chūai, she constructed a shamanic "palace of worship", "discharged in person the office of priest", and heard the gods reveal themselves as coming from Ise (Amaterasu) and Mukatsu (an unnamed Korean divinity). Although the and myth-histories called Jingū first of the Japanese empresses, Meiji period historians removed her from the List of Emperors of Japan, leaving Empress Suiko () as the first historically verifiable female Japanese ruler.
Korean sources The oldest extant Korean history text, the ("Chronicles of the Three [Korean] Kingdoms", completed in 1145), records that Queen Himiko sent an emissary to King Adalla of Silla in May 173.
Interpretations Researchers have struggled to reconcile Himiko between Chinese and Japanese historical sources. While the described her as an important ruler in 3rd-century Japan, early Japanese historians purposely avoided naming Himiko, even when the quoted the about envoys from Wa.
Name The three Chinese characters (simplified: ) transcribing the Wa regent's name are read or in Modern Japanese and or in Modern Standard Chinese.
However, these contemporary readings differ considerably from how 'Himiko' was pronounced in the 3rd century, both by speakers of the unknown Wa-language and by Chinese scribes who transcribed it. While transliteration into Chinese characters of foreign words is complex, the choice of these three particular characters is puzzling, with literal meanings "low; inferior; humble", () "fill, cover; full; whole, complete", and "breathe out; exhale; cry out; call".
In terms of historical Chinese phonology, the modern () is simpler than its presumed 3rd-century late Old Chinese or early Middle Chinese pronunciation. Compare the following reconstructions of the name in Archaic Chinese or Middle Chinese (Bernhard Karlgren, Li Fanggui, and William H. Baxter), Early Middle Chinese (Edwin G. Pulleyblank), and, historically closest, Late Han Chinese (Axel Schuessler). (Karlgren) (Li) (Baxter) or (Pulleyblank) (Schuessler)
In terms of Japanese phonology (which historically did not have the consonant /h/ and whose modern /h/ evolves from historical /p/),Miyake, Marc Hideo (2003). Old Japanese: A Phonetic Reconstruction. London; New York: RoutledgeCurzon. p. 196 the accepted modern reading of 'Himiko' would regularly correspond to Old Japanese . However, Roy Andrew Miller says is a lexicographic error deriving from the transcriptions.
(Old Japanese ), (, "young noblewoman; princess"), explains Miller, etymologically derives from () (, "sun") and () (, "woman").
Tsunoda notes that "Pimiko is from an archaic Japanese title, , meaning 'princess'"; that is, with the female name suffix (, "child"), viz. the uncommon given name Himeko. Other Amaterasu-related etymological proposals for the Japanese name Himiko involve (, "sun") and ( or , "female shaman, shamaness; shrine maiden; priestess"); or their combination , "princess-priestess".
BentleyBentley 2008:18–20 considers the Baekje word , 'west', the honorific prefix and , 'heir', and thus interprets as 'the honorific heir of the west'.
Identity and historicity Identifying Himiko of Wa is straightforward within the history of China, but problematic within the history of Japan. The 3rd-century Chinese ("Records of Wei") provides details about shaman Queen Himiko and her communications with Emperors Cao Rui and Cao Fang. The 8th-century Japanese ("Records of Ancient Matters") and the ("Chronicles of Japan", which quotes the ) disregard Himiko, unless she was the subtext behind their accounts of Empress Jingū, Yamatohime-no-mikoto, or Yamato-totohi-momoso-hime.
None of these three legendary Japanese royal shamans adequately corresponds with the Chinese chronology and description of Himiko. Assuming the account that Himiko died around 248, if one accepts the dubious Japanese traditional dating, then she was closer to the 3rd-century AD Empress Jingū than to the 1st-century BC Yamato-hime-no-mikoto and Yamato-totohi-momoso-hime. On the other hand, if one accepts the postdating adjustments prior to the 4th century, then Himiko was closer to these Yamato-named shamans. Neither the nor the mentions Himiko or any of the salient topics that she was unmarried, was chosen as ruler by the people, had a younger brother who helped rule (unless this refers to Jingū's son), or had numerous (figuratively "1,000") female attendants.
William Wayne Farris reviews the history of scholarly debates over Himiko and her domain Yamatai. The Edo-period philosophers Arai Hakuseki and Motoori Norinaga began the controversies over whether Yamatai was located in Northern Kyushu or Yamato Province in the Kinki region of central Honshū and whether the or the was historically more trustworthy. The Confucianist Arai accepted the Chinese history as more reliable, and first equated Himiko with Jingū and Yamatai with Yamato. The scholar Motoori accepted the traditional Japanese myth-history as more reliable, and dismissed its quotations as later accretions. He hypothesized that a king from Kumaso sent emissaries who masqueraded as Jingū's officials to the Wei court, thus leading Wei to mistake them for representatives of Himiko. Farris states that "Motoori's usurpation hypothesis () carried great weight for the next century."