Sanskrit inherits from its parent, the Proto-Indo-European language, the capability of forming compound nouns, also widely seen in kindred languages, especially German, Greek, and English.
However, Sanskrit, especially in the later stages of the language, significantly expands on this both in terms of the number of elements making up a single compound and the volume of compound usage in the literature, a development which is unique within Indo-European to Sanskrit and closely related languages.
Further, this development in the later language is an entirely artificial, literary construct and does not reflect the spoken language.Coulson, p. xxi.Burrow, p. 209.
Background In Sanskrit, as in Proto-Indo-European, a compound is formed by taking the stem-form of the first element (i.e. removing its inflexion) and combining the two elements with a single accented syllable.
In the later language, this process can be repeated recursively—in theory, ad infinitum, with the freshly made compound becoming the first element of a new one.Whitney, §1246.Kale, §180
The process of 'resolving' the compound, i.e., expounding the meaning using the component words declined as in sentence form is termed vigraha·vākya.Kale, §184.
Broadly, compounds can be divided into two classes: endocentric and exocentric.Adams, p. 35.
Endocentric compounds An endocentric compound, usually called determinative, is where the compound is essentially the sum of its parts, the meaning being an extension of one of the parts:
blackbird → a type of black bird White House → the official residence of the US presidentMeyer, p. 179. siṃha·purás → lion-city (Singapore)
Exocentric compounds An exocentric compound refers to something outside the components:
redhead → someone with red hair pickpocket → someone who picks someone else's pockets 'bahu·vrīhi' → lit. 'much-rice', i.e., possessing much rice: an indication of wealth
Indeed, this term 'bahuvrihi' is used both in Sanskrit and standard Indo-European linguistics to denote this type of compound.Fortson, §6.82.
Sanskrit expands on these to provide several further distinctions as below:
Classification In traditional Sanskrit grammar, compounds are divided into the following main classes:Kale, §201.
Tatpuruṣa Tatpuruṣa proper Karmadhāraya Dvigu Nañ-tatpuruṣa Prādi and gati Upapada Bahuvrīhi Dvigu Dvandva Avyayībhāva
The first two of these, tatpuruṣa and bahuvrīhi, are Indo-European inheritances, the latter two are Indic innovations. Alongside the term bahuvrīhi, tatpuruṣa has also been adopted in mainstream Indo-European linguistics as the technical term denoting this type of compounding.
The following sections give an outline of the main types of compounds with examples. The examples demonstrate the composition of the compound's elements, and the meanings in English generally correspond to them, in most cases being a similar compound as well. Where this is not the case or the meaning is not clear, a further resolution is provided.
Tatpuruṣa (determinative)
A tatpuruṣa is an endocentric compound composed of two elements, wherein the first one, named the attributive, determines the second one.Coulson, pp. 87.Kale, §200.
Based on the grammatical nature of the attributive member, six varieties of tatpuruṣa compounds are identified as seen in the classification above. A further distinction is also made based on whether the attributive is in the nominative or an oblique case.
Tatpuruṣa proper
The first member here is an attributive in an oblique relationship with the second, and are therefore termed dependent determinatives.Kale, §203.
+ Word Meaning, resolution Relationship jaya·prepsu victory-seeking Accusative deva·dattá- god-given: given by the gods Instrumental viṣṇu·bali Viṣṇu-offering: offering to Viṣṇu Dative svarga·patitá- heaven-fallen: fallen from heaven Ablative vyāghra·buddhi tiger-thought: the thought of it being a tiger Genitive yajur·veda- sacrifice-knowledge: the knowledge of sacrifice Genitive gṛha·jāta- house-born: born in the house Locative
Karmadhāraya-tatpuruṣa (descriptive) In a karmadhāraya-tatpuruṣa compound, the first element qualifies the second one adjectively when the latter is a noun. When the second member is an adjective, the qualification is adverbial. Other parts of speech besides adjectives and adverbs may be used to obtain the adjective or adverbial qualification.Whitney, §1279.Tubb & Boose, §1.54.
+ Word Meaning, resolution nīlôtpala blue lotus sarva·guṇa all good quality priya·sakha dear friend maha·rṣí great-sage rajata·pātrá silver cup
Dvigu-tatpuruṣa (numerative)
In essence dvigu can refer to several compound types where the first element is a numeral. Dvigu-tatpuruṣa compounds are a special subcategory of karmadhārayas.Tubb & Boose, §1.56.Whitney, §1312.
+ Word Meaning, resolution dvi·rājá- (the battle of) two kings tri·bhuvana- three-world: the universe tri·yugá- three ages tri·divá the triple heaven daśâṅgulá- ten fingers' breadth ṣaḍ·ahá- six day's time sahasrâhṇyá- thousand days' journey
dvigu compounds of bahuvrīhi type are noted below.
Nañ-tatpuruṣa (negative) In a nañ-tatpuruṣa compound, the first element is a privative, a negator: a- (before consonant), an- (before vowel) or na-, just like the English un-, Latin-derived in-, non- or Greek-derived a- (before consonant), an- (before vowel) .Whitney, §1288.Tubb & Boose, §1.58. + Word Meaning, resolution á·brāhmaṇa non-Brahmin án·aśva non-horse: not a horse á·pati non-master: not a master á·vidyā non-knowledge: ignorance á·kumāra unyoung: old á·śraddhā unbelief, non-creed
Upapada-tatpuruṣa
These are composed of a second member that occurs only in a compound and cannot stand on its own. These are either roots or verbal derivatives from them.Tubb & Boose, §1.59.Whitney, §1286.
+ Word Meaning, resolution sa·yúj joining together su·kṛ́t well-doing, a good deed kumbha·kāra- pot-maker sva·rā́j self-ruling: sovereign manu·já Manu-born, born of Manu, man svayam·bhū́ self-existent eka·já only-born jala·dá water-giving: a cloud sarva·jñá all-knowing: an omniscient person
Aluk-tatpuruṣa In an aluk-tatpuruṣa compound, in contrast to the standard pattern of being in stem form, the first element takes a case form as if in a sentence:Kale, §208, 215
+ First Element → Word Meaning, resolution Case ojas → ojasā·kṛtá- done with might Kale, §206. Instrumental ātman → ātmane·pada- 'word for self': the reflexive voice Dative dyaus → divas·pati 'lord of the sky': a name of IndraKale, §215.Whitney, §361. Genitive yudh → yudhi·ṣṭhira- 'firm in battle': a nameKale, §217. Locative
Dvandva (co-ordinative) These consist of two or more noun stems connected with "and" (copulative or co-ordinative). There are mainly three kinds of dvandva pair constructions in Sanskrit:Kale, §187.
Itaretara-dvandva The result of itaretara-dvandva is an enumerative word, the meaning of which refers to all its constituent members. The resultant compound word is in the dual or plural number and takes the gender of the final member in the compound construction. Examples:Burrow, p. 217.Whitney, §1253.
+ Word Meaning, resolution mitrā́·váruṇau Mitra and Varuṇa dyāvā·pṛthivī heaven and earth vrīhi·yavaú rice and barley candrādityau moon and sun devāsurā́s the gods and the demons hasty·aśvās elephants and horses roga·śoka·parītāpa·bandhana·vyasanāni disease, pain, grief, bondage and adversity
Samāhāra-dvandva Words may be organised in a compound to form a metonym, and sometimes the words may comprise all the constituent parts of the whole. The resultant bears a collective sense and is always singular and neutral.Kale, §188-189.
+ Word Literal ⇒ Meaning pāṇi·pādam 'hands and feet' ⇒ limbs, appendages āhāra·nidrā·bhayam 'food, sleep and fear' ⇒ vicissitudes, features of life
Ekaśeṣa-dvandva Some Sanskrit grammarians identify a third kind of dvandva which they call ekaśeṣa-dvandva, where only one stem remains in what is viewed as the compound of multiple words.Tubb & Boose, §173-174.
+ Compound Resolution Meaning pitarau mātā + pitā 'mother and father' ⇒ parents mṛgāḥ mṛgaḥ + mṛgā 'does and bucks' ⇒ deer putrāḥ putrāḥ + duhitaraḥ 'sons and daughters' ⇒ children
Āmreḍita (iterative)
While not strictly copulative, this is a compound consisting of the same word repeated with the first occurrence accented.
Āmreḍita compounds are used to express repetitiveness; for example, from dív- (day) we obtain divé-dive ('day after day', daily) and from devá- (god) we obtain deváṃ-devam or devó-devas ('deity after deity').Whitney, §1260.
Bahuvrīhi (possessive)
Bahuvrīhi is an exocentric compound consisting of a noun preceded by a grammatical modifier which, taken together, functions as a single nominalised adjective.
A bahuvrīhi compound can often be translated by "possessing..." or "-ed"; for example, "possessing much rice" or "much-riced". In English, examples of bahuvrīhi would be "lowlife" and "blockhead" (they respectively denote 'one whose life is low' and 'one whose head resembles a block'), or the English surname Longbottom ('one who lives in a long "botham" [valley]').
The second element could essentially have been a noun, which within such a compound, can take on adjective declensions with the compound used adjectivally. Endocentric compounds can thus be transformed into possessives, normally accompanied, and explicitly recognized in the older language, by a change in accentuation:Whitney, §1293.Kale, §246.
indra·śatrú-, 'Indra's killer' ⇒ índra·śatru-, 'having Indra as killer' bṛhad·ratha-, 'a great chariot' ⇒ bṛhád·ratha-, 'having great chariots' sūrya·tejás-, 'sun's brightness' ⇒ sū́rya·tejas-, 'possessing the brightness of the sun'
A few typical examples of such compounds:Burrow, p. 215.
+ Word Meaning, resolution mayū́ra·roman- peacock-plumed ugrá·bāhu- strong-shouldered jīvitá·vatsa- alive-childed: having living children mádhu·jihva- honeytongue, honey-tongued: talking nicely pátra·hasta- vessel-handed: holding a vessel in the hand khara-mukha- donkey-faced
Dvigu-bahuvrīhi When the first element of a bahuvrīhi is a numeral, the compound is called dvigu. An English example would be a halfwit ('one who has half of their mind').
A few typical examples of such compounds:Whitney, §1300.
+ Word Meaning, resolution éka·cakra- one-wheeled éka·pad one-footed cátur·aṅga- four-limbed saptá·jihva- seven-tongued aṣṭá·putra- eight-sonned: having eight sons náva·dvāra- nine-doored śatá·dant hundred-toothed sahásra·nāman thousandname: having a thousand names
Avyayībhāva (adverbial) Avyayībhāvas ('indeclinable') are adverbial compounds composed of an indeclinable element (an adverb, etc.) and a noun, together expressing an adverb or another indeclinable () element.Whitney, §1313.Tubb & Boose, §1.48.
+ Word Meaning, resolution adhy·ātmam concerning the self anu·ratham behind the chariots upa·rājam near the king; kingside praty·agni towards the fire prati·niśam every night yathā·śakti per-strength: according to one's ability sa·cakram simultaneously with the wheel antar·jalam inter-water: within the water
See also Sanskrit nominals Sanskrit verbs Sanskrit grammar Vedic Sanskrit grammar Proto-Indo-European verbs Proto-Indo-Aryan Proto-Indo-Iranian Proto-Indo-European Kenning
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