Fakhr al-Dīn al-Rāzī (; ; 1149 or 1150 – 1209; AH 543–606), also known as Fakhruddin Razi and by the sobriquet Sultan of the Theologians, was a prominent Muslim theologian, philosopher, polymath, and scientist. He wrote extensively on theology, philosophy, ontology, jurisprudence, medicine, chemistry, physics, astronomy, cosmology, history, and literature, was among the pioneers of inductive logic, and was the author of the major Qur'anic commentary Tafsir al-Kabir.Richard Maxwell Eaton, The Rise of Islam and the Bengal Frontier, 1204–1760, University of California Press, 1996, p. 29.Shaikh M. Ghazanfar, Medieval Islamic Economic Thought: Filling the Great Gap in European Economics, Routledge, 2003, .
Al-Rāzī was born in Ray and eventually died in Herat, in present-day Afghanistan.. He opposed the Muʿtazilites and was eventually compelled into exile, ultimately settling in Herat. There he founded a madrasa, attracted numerous pupils, and received the title Shaykh al-Islām. His effort to demonstrate that theology and philosophy could be reconciled led some contemporaries to accuse him of betraying Islam, and his death may have resulted from poisoning. His philosophical and theological writings show the influence of Avicenna, Abū al-Barakāt al-Baghdādī, and al-Ghazālī. Among his most important philosophical works are Mabāḥith al-mashriqiyya fī ʿilm al-ilāhiyyāt wa-l-ṭabīʿiyyāt ("Eastern Studies in Metaphysics and Physics") and al-Maṭālib al-ʿāliya ("The Higher Issues").
In cosmology, al-Rāzī rejected the geocentric model and the Aristotelian conception of a single universe revolving around a single world. He argued for the existence of space beyond the known world and was among the earliest proponents of a plurality of worlds, comparing this conception with astronomical teachings in the Qur'an.
Biography
Fakhr al-Din al-Razi, whose full name was Abū ʿAbd Allāh Muḥammad ibn ʿUmar ibn al-Ḥusayn bin Ali al-Razi al-Tabaristani (), was born in 1149 or 1150 CE (543 or 544 AH) in Ray (close to modern Tehran), whence his al-Razi.. Originally from Tabaristan (Amol), he traveled to Khwarazm, Transoxiana, and Khorasan. According to Ibn al-Shaʿʿār al-Mawṣilī (died 1256), one of al-Razi's earliest biographers, his great-grandfather had been a rich merchant in Mecca.. Either his great-grandfather or his grandfather migrated from Mecca to Tabaristan (a mountainous region located on the Caspian coast of northern Iran) in the 11th century, and some time after that the family settled in Ray. Having been born into a family of Meccan origin, al-Razi claimed descent from the first caliph Abu Bakr (), and was known by medieval biographers as al-Qurashī (a member of the Quraysh, the tribe of the prophet Muhammad to which also Abu Bakr belonged).; cf. : "The family claimed both a long tribal ancestry (associated with the Taimi tribe) and descent from the family of Abu Bakr, the first caliph". However, it is not known whether his ancestors resided continuously in the Hijaz since the early days of Islam, or which specific ancestor migrated from Mecca to Tabaristan. Shihadeh notes that the poet Ibn ʿUnayn (died 1233) praised him as a descendant of the second caliph Umar ibn al-Khattab, but considers this to be a confusion on the poet’s part.. Shihadeh’s original Arabic text states: “ويبدو أن هذا التباس من الشاعر” (And it seems this is a confusion by the poet). On Ibn ʿUnayn, see . Furthermore, the ‘‘Diwan’s’’ commentary notes that the verse was intended to praise al-Razi’s Arab Qurashi origins, despite his ancestors settling in non-Arab lands.
Fakhr al-Din first studied with his father, Ḍiyāʾ al-Dīn al-Makkī, himself a scholar of some repute whose magnum opus in kalam has recently been rediscovered in part,Facsimile in . and later at Merv and Maragheh, where he was one of the pupils of Majd al-Din al-Jili, who in turn had been a disciple of al-Ghazali. He was a leading proponent of the Ash'ari school of theology.
His commentary on the Quran was the most-varied and many-sided of all extant works of the kind, comprising most of the material of importance that had previously appeared. He devoted himself to a wide range of studies and is said to have expended a large fortune on experiments in alchemy. He taught at Ray (Central Iran) and Ghazni (eastern Afghanistan), and became head of the university founded by Mohammed ibn Tukush at Herat (western Afghanistan).
In Khwārazm, debates with Muʿtazilī scholars led to unrest, forcing him to return to Rey. Later, he traveled through Transoxiana, where his works such as al-Mabāḥith al-Mashriqiyya and Sharḥ al-Ishārāt were taught. In Sarakhs, he befriended the famous physician ʿAbd al-Raḥmān b. ʿAbd al-Karīm and wrote a commentary on Ibn Sīnā's al-Qānūn for him. He married his two sons to the physician's daughters. In Bukhara, he debated prominent Ḥanafī scholars and theologians, earning great admiration. His debates with the Bāṭinīs and Karrāmīs also drew widespread attention.
He later settled in Herat in 600 AH (1203 CE). Although some sources claim he traveled to Baghdad and then Egypt, there is no reliable confirmation of this. He spent the remainder of his life in Herat, authoring works and teaching more than 300 students. Though poor in his early years, he later became wealthy, partly due to gifts from rulers and inheritance from his in-laws.
He was also renowned as an influential preacher and public speaker. According to later biographical reports, he delivered sermons in both Arabic and Persian and was often overcome with emotion while preaching, sometimes weeping. His gatherings in Herat attracted followers from different schools and sects, who attended in order to question him and engage in theological debate. It is reported that through his preaching and disputations, many members of the Karrāmiyya and others returned to Sunni doctrine. Because of his influence in Herat, he was known there by the title “Shaykh al-Islām.”Yusuf Şevki Yavuz, “Fakhr al-Dīn al-Rāzī,” TDV Encyclopedia of Islam, Istanbul: TDV Center for Islamic Studies, 1995, accessed February 16, 2026, https://islamansiklopedisi.org.tr/fahreddin-er-razi
Some later sources also preserve anecdotes illustrating his rhetorical ability. One report states that during a sermon he addressed Sultan Shihāb al-Dīn with a reminder of the transient nature of worldly power, which reportedly moved the ruler to tears.Maḥmūd b. Sulaymān al-Kafawī, Katāʾib Aʿlām al-Akhyār min Fuqahāʾ Madhhab al-Nuʿmān al-Mukhtār, ed. Muṣṭafā Kūnā, al-Shākir Marwān Rashīd, Ḥasan Ūzār, and Ḥanīf Bukhārī, Istanbul, Turkey: Maktabat al-Irshād, 2017, pp. 425–428.
In addition to his written works, he trained many prominent students whose influence spread his intellectual legacy. Among those associated with his scholarly circle were Athīr al-Dīn al-Abharī, Tāj al-Dīn al-Urmawī, Sirāj al-Dīn al-Urmawī and Shams al-Dīn Ḥusrawshāhī, as well as later scholars among his descendants.
He died on 1 Shawwāl 606 AH (29 March 1210 CE) in Herat. He was buried near the village of Muzdāhān outside Herat.
Some historical accounts differ regarding his burial. While one tradition states that he was buried near Muzdāhān according to his will, another reports that he was actually buried in his own house and that a public burial site was presented in order to prevent possible desecration of his body by opponents.
In his later years, he also showed interest in mysticism, though this never formed a significant part of his thought. He died in Herat (Afghanistan) in 1209 (606 AH), where his tomb is still venerated today. Many believe he was poisoned by the Karrāmīyah.
The Great Commentary
One of Imam Razi's outstanding achievements was his unique interpretive work on the Quran called Mafātiḥ al-Ghayb (Keys to the Unseen) and later nicknamed Tafsīr al-Kabīr (The Great Commentary), one reason being that it was 32 volumes in length. This work contains much of philosophical interest. One of his "major concerns was the self-sufficiency of the intellect." His "acknowledgment of the primacy of the Qur'an grew with his years." Al-Razi's rationalism undoubtedly "holds an important place in the debate in the Islamic tradition on the harmonization of reason and revelation."
Development of Kalam Al-Razi's development of Kalam (Islamic scholastic theology) led to the evolution and flourishing of theology among Muslims. Razi had experienced different periods in his thinking, affected by the Ash'ari school of thought and later by al-Ghazali. Al-Razi tried to make use of elements of Muʿtazila and Falsafah, and although he had some criticisms on ibn Sina, Razi was greatly affected by him. The most important instance showing the synthesis of Razi's thought may be the problem of the eternity of the world and its relation to God. He tried to reorganize the arguments of theologians and philosophers on this subject, collected and critically examined the arguments of both sides. He considered, for the most part, the philosophers' argument for the world's eternity stronger than the theologians' position of putting emphasis on the temporal nature of the world. According to Tony Street, we should not see in Razi's theoretical life a journey from a young dialectician to a religious condition. It seems that he adopted different thoughts of diverse schools, such as those of Mutazilite and Asharite, in his exegesis, The Great Commentary.
Methodology of Qur’anic interpretation Al-Rāzī developed a distinctive and systematic methodology in Qur’anic exegesis that combined rational analysis, linguistic inquiry, and theological argumentation. He maintained that apparent conflicts between reason and revelation must be resolved through interpretation (taʾwīl), since sound reason and authentic revelation ultimately cannot contradict each other. Verses that appeared to conflict with rational principles were therefore classified as ambiguous (mutashābih), and their meanings were explored through linguistic, philosophical, and theological analysis.
Although his approach emphasized rational reflection (dirāyah), al-Rāzī also made use of transmitted reports, occasions of revelation, variant Qurʾanic readings, and intertextual comparison within the Qurʾān itself. He held that the most reliable method of interpretation was to allow the Qurʾān to explain itself, while also integrating knowledge from philosophy, logic, and the natural sciences when relevant.
His exegetical method had a lasting impact on later Islamic scholarship, especially among theologians and scholars seeking to harmonize philosophical reasoning with traditional scriptural interpretation.
Philosophical theology Al-Rāzī is widely regarded as a central figure in the development of philosophical theology in Islam. Drawing on the works of Ibn Sīnā and other philosophers, he sought to integrate philosophical reasoning into the framework of Ashʿarī theology while preserving core doctrinal commitments. His synthesis marked a major shift in the discipline of kalām, transforming it into a more systematic and intellectually expansive field.
According to later historians such as Ibn Khaldūn, al-Rāzī played a decisive role in initiating the era of “philosophical kalām,” in which theological debates increasingly employed logical and metaphysical methods derived from philosophy. At the same time, he remained critical of certain philosophical doctrines, including emanation and aspects of Avicennian cosmology, and maintained a degree of intellectual independence from both theologians and philosophers.Anawati, G.C., “Fakhr al-Dīn al-Rāzī”, in: Encyclopaedia of Islam, Second Edition, Edited by: P. Bearman, Th. Bianquis, C.E. Bosworth, E. van Donzel, W.P. Heinrichs. Consulted online on 12 June 2020. <http://dx.doi.org.ezproxy.tcu.edu/10.1163/1573-3912_islam_COM_0206>