Textile recycling is the process of recovering fiber, yarn, or fabric and reprocessing the material into new, useful products. Textile waste is split into pre-consumer and post-consumer waste and is sorted into five different categories derived from a pyramid model. Textiles can be either reused or mechanically/chemically recycled.
There has been a shift in recent years toward recycling textiles because of new regulations in several countries. In response, companies are developing products from both post-consumer waste and recycled materials such as plastics. Results from academic studies demonstrate that textile reuse and recycling are more advantageous than incineration and landfilling.
The speed of clothing consumption has increased substantially since the late 1990s across the world. All aspects of fast fashion have elements that are not environmentally friendly, and the amounts of waste from disposal of textiles into the garbage system is increasing beyond the industry's capabilities. The fast fashion industry currently has little to do with the end of life cycle of clothing. Some fast fashion companies collect and export their disposed textiles to developing countries for charity, but because charities are beginning to turn away fast fashion for its cheap production methods, organizations are facing challenges in generating sustainable solutions to counter social and soon governmental pressure. There are many organizations that provide educational tools on how to reuse and recycle textiles to interested individuals, such as "Human Bridge (charitable organization)". Many retail and textile chains that encourage recycling or reuse provide incentives to do so. For example, Lindex offered a rebate to customers who turned in their clothes.
There are organizations that work to recycle the material into new usable materials for a wide variety of industry needs. Working with the Swedish Red Cross, the Swedish Prison and Probation Service is able to provide textile packing material to the shipping industry; additionally, recycling programs like StenaRecycling are finding new ways to use textiles in various industrial ways, creating construction materials, stuffing, and new and improved textiles.
Polyester and cotton dominate the textile industry with the synthetic fiber polyester exceeding production of cotton since 2002. Fast fashion has caused a spike in textile waste, bringing waste management to the attention of many individuals. After clothing is reused until it is beyond usable for its given function, recycling it through a mechanical or chemical process is the next step. One concern with recycling textiles is the loss of "virgin material", but chemical recycling can extract the "virgin materials" like protein-based and cellulosic fibers to produce new products. The deterioration of material to provide new products is the process of mechanical recycling.
Types There are four types of recycling: upcycling, downcycling, closed-loop, and open-loop recycling. Upcycling is the process of using a textile to create something higher quality than the original. Downcycling is using a textile in a way that is less than the original value. Closed-loop recycling is the reuse of one textile over and over again to create the same piece. Open-loop recycling is the process of creating something new with the textile piece. The EU is currently taking initiative to enforce circularity and closed-loop recycling in the clothing cycle, as well as encouraging a less wasteful lifestyle by supporting second-hand and organic clothing pieces – organic in this case being cotton, silk, etc. In the United States, New York City has begun working with natural fibers like bamboo and hemp to make not just clothing, but bags as well.
Technology There are many technologies that assist in the recycling of textile products:
Anaerobic digestion of textile waste – decomposition of organic cotton textile to collect methane and other biogas Fermentation of textile waste for ethanol production – cotton fabric provides enhancement of bioethanol production Composting of textile waste – cotton waste provides an excellent source of nutrients in compost Fiber regeneration from textile waste – recovery of glucose and polyester is possible and allows for reuse of material Building/construction material from textile waste – use of textiles in building materials and construction Thermal recovery – incineration of remaining textiles to collect usable energy
Waste Over 100 billion garments are produced annually, most of which end up in incinerators or landfills. The EPA reported that in 2018 alone, 17 million tons of textile municipal solid waste (MSW) were generated. The fashion industry is often cited as the second biggest polluter next to the oil industry. Textile recycling decreases landfill space, creates less pollution, and reduces the consumption of power and water. Most materials used in textile recycling can be split into two categories: pre-consumer and post-consumer waste.
Pre-consumer Pre-consumer waste involves secondary materials from the textile, fiber, and cotton industries. These products are repurposed for other industries, i.e., furniture, mattresses, coarse yarn, home building, automotive, paper, and apparel.
Pre-consumer can also refer to overstock or left-over garments that retailers have not been able to sell to consumers. These left-over garments are then repurposed and used to create new pieces of clothing while being environmentally sustainable.
Post-consumer Post-consumer waste consists of textile garments and household articles that have been discarded by their owners. These textile articles are typically discarded because they are damaged, worn out, or outdated. 85% of post-consumer waste in the United States, however, is found in landfills. The remaining post-consumer waste can be directed towards second-hand retailers to be resold or passed on to warehouses dedicated to textile recycling.
Realizing circularity Workshops hosted by the National Institute of Standards and Technology are freely available in NIST.SP.1500-207,Schumacher, K. and Forster, A. (2022), Facilitating a Circular Economy for Textiles Workshop Report, Special Publication (NIST SP), National Institute of Standards and Technology, Gaithersburg, MD, [online], https://doi.org/10.6028/NIST.SP.1500-207, https://tsapps.nist.gov/publication/get_pdf.cfm?pub_id=934344 (Accessed July 12, 2025) to include challenges formalizing the definitions and data that will be required for understanding the future of circularity for the textile waste stream.
Categories Textiles are sorted into categories according to the pyramid model, which organizes textiles by their quality and usability. These category placements determine which processes are used to recycle or reuse the textile. Such categories are: textiles for used clothing markets, textiles for conversion, wiping and polishing cloths, textiles sent to landfills and incinerators, and diamonds.
Diamonds Diamonds are older, trendier clothing items that are from high-end, well-known brands. Diamonds make up 1–2% of recycled textiles. Despite being the smallest category, diamonds generate the largest amount of profit per item for recycling companies. Clothing and accessories that are considered diamonds include couture, Harley Davidson, Levi's, Ralph Lauren, and luxury fibers (for example cashmere). These second-hand clothing articles are in high demand and can be sold online, in retail boutiques, or in vintage shops.
Landfill and incineration Around 7% of recycled textile products are either incinerated or placed in a landfill. Textiles that are placed in landfills have no value and are unable to be repurposed; this process is costly and is avoided when possible. Textiles can also be incinerated to produce electrical energy. This practice is more common in Europe than in the United States because European boiler systems have higher capabilities than American boiler systems. Although incinerating municipal solid waste (MSW) is not yet feasible in the United States, over two thirds of MSW is incinerated in countries such as Denmark, Japan, and Switzerland. The energy values of burning MSW have been comparable with oil in terms of calories; however, there are obstacles to this process. These obstacles include increasing incineration efficiency and reducing harmful byproducts of incineration.
Wiping and polishing cloths Around 17% of used textiles are sorted into the wiping and polishing cloth category. These textiles are deemed un-wearable and are then used to create wiping and polishing cloths. Wiping and polishing cloths can be made from a combination of oleophilic and hydrophilic fibers which are often useful in industrial application. Textiles, such as T-shirts, are commonly used to create these cloths due to their naturally absorbent cotton fibers.
Conversion to new products 29% of textile waste is reengineered into new products if deemed unusable. Usability depends on whether or not the textiles are stained or torn beyond repair. Shoddy and mungo are the two main results of the reengineering process.
Shoddy involves creating new yarn products from old materials, and is one of the most historical examples of textile recycling. One of the largest producers of shoddy yarn is Panipat in North India, which has over 300 mills. The majority of shoddy in Panipat is used to create knit blankets, making up over 90% of the blankets that are given to communities in disaster relief.
Mungo was invented after shoddy and refers to the process of using textile clippings to make wool. This wool is exported to European countries, whose cooler climates and flammability regulations result in a greater need for mungo.
Shoddy and mungo can be utilized for both high and low quality products. These reengineered fibers have been used in cashmere sweaters and in stuffing for furniture, automobiles, and punching bags.
Used clothing markets 48% of textiles are sorted into the used clothing markets category. Western countries export used textiles to developing countries or to disaster relief. In developing nations, used Western textiles are highly valued as they are often more affordable than local textiles. Used Western textiles are also sold to the lower and middle classes in more developed countries whose incomes are not large enough to purchase more-expensive, local textiles. Because textile exportation is a global industry, exporters must be conscious of the varying trade regulations and restrictions in different countries.
Processing Reuse Textile reuse is the preferred processing method because it extends the original product's lifetime. Reuse occurs when textile owners rent, trade, swap, borrow, inherit products through second-hand stores, garage sales, online/flea markets, or charities. In reusing textiles, the textile is sometimes changed through cutting and sewing or through decorating the textiles with paints, patches and other textiles in a process referred to as DIY.
Recycling
Mechanical Mechanical processing is a recycling method in which textile fabric is broken down while the fibers are still preserved. Once shredded down, these fibers can be spun to create new fabrics. This is the most commonly used technique to recycle textiles and is a process that is particularly well developed for cotton textiles. Mechanical processing protocols can differ depending on the material, so it also requires several levels of sorting before the process begins.