Splitting, also called binary thinking, dichotomous thinking, black-and-white thinking, all-or-nothing thinking, or thinking in extremes, is the failure in a person's thinking to bring together the dichotomy of both perceived positive and negative qualities of something into a cohesive, realistic whole.
It is a common defense mechanism, wherein the individual tends to think in extremes (e.g., an individual's actions and motivations are all good or all bad with no middle ground). This kind of dichotomous interpretation is contrasted by an acknowledgement of certain nuances known as "shades of gray". Splitting can include different contexts, as individuals who use this defense mechanism may "split" representations of their own mind, of their own personality, and of others. Splitting is observed in personality disorders belonging to cluster B, such as borderline personality disorder and narcissistic personality disorder, as well as schizophrenia and depression. In dissociative identity disorder, the term splitting is used to refer to a split in personality alter-egos.
History Splitting was first described by Ronald Fairbairn in his formulation of object relations theory in 1952; it begins as the inability of the infant to combine the fulfilling aspects of the parents (the good object) and their unresponsive aspects (the unsatisfying object) into the same individuals, instead seeing the good and bad as separate. In psychoanalytic theory this functions as a defense mechanism. Splitting was also described by Hyppolyte Taine in 1878 who described splitting as a splitting of the ego. He described this as the existence of two thoughts, wills, distinct actions simultaneously within an individual who is aware of one mind without the awareness of the other.
Mechanism Splitting people, ideas, and things into categories of either good or bad can be typically seen in childhood development, but "is expected to recede once the child has developed the capacity to understand primary caretakers as simultaneously possessing both good and bad qualities."
The individual will often perceive something that contradicts with their image of themselves or a person close to them as a rejection or slight, a perceived attempt to isolate or abandon them, or even a feeling of unwanted attraction. Psychoanalytic theories propose the idea that idealization and devaluation means there is polarization in not only an individual's model of self, but their perceived view of others as well.
Individuals with borderline personality disorder have been shown to interpret social acceptance as subterfuge or deception. They have also been shown to be less sensitive to verbal irony due to a negative bias in interpreting ambiguous information. Individuals diagnosed with borderline personality disorder may also believe that they will be abandoned if they trust anyone around them.
Such an individual will feel challenged by this discomfort as it relates to their self-perception and will form a narrative to explain and externalize the perceived discomfort, making it wholly the fault of another. Proneness to rejection hypersensitivity, problems in establishing and maintaining consistent and appropriate levels of trust in interpersonal relationships, and frequent misinterpretation of social signals contribute greatly to such an individual's ability to find supporting "evidence" for their devaluation process. This can be exacerbated in times of professional or personal stress.American Psychiatric Association 2013, pp. 645, 663– Splitting can also result in dispositional and situational attributes of others' actions. This means that both a liked person's good behavior and an unliked person's bad behavior are both dispositional attributes; however, a good person's bad behavior would be situational and attributed to symptoms like stress or intoxication.
The individual will then devalue the person that they once idealised. Often then the splitting process becomes behavioral and the subject will often abruptly lash out or cut contact with the person that they now devalue, causing a great deal of inner group conflict and distress. In order to prevent perceived judgement from others, the subject will often engage in a stage of justification of their actions by convincing those around them of the validity of their claims that the devalued party is entirely bad and that they are purely a victim.
With people with Cluster B personality disorders, this often involves the embellishment or invention of grievances that garner an emotional response from those around them that they feel matches their own distress at the situation. The more valuable the social bond they are trying to preserve or the higher their general need for social acceptance, the higher the probability that they engage in psychologically abusive behavior. This can cause intense psychological distress in the person they are devaluing and can be met by legal challenges of abuse or slander.
Splitting also impacts self-esteem, as the dichotomous good or bad thinking is applied to an individual's own self image and how they perceive themselves.
Management For the loved ones of those with borderline personality disorder there are several seemingly contradictory factors to balance:
Privacy of the subject versus seeking external help Acknowledging the subject's emotions while not endorsing or encouraging their behavior Helping the subject navigate their episode while not protecting them from the consequences of their actions.
The New England Personality Disorder Association recommends always involving the wider group in the discussion of issues, not responding to or ignoring threats or accusations (even if untrue) in the moment, and then discussing the episode in an open and realistic manner when the subject has calmed, and never protecting the subject from social or legal consequences of their actions.
Certain difficulties arise from validating emotions and not endorsing the behavior of splitting, as the loved ones of the person with borderline personality disorder risks could become complicit in both the problematic behaviors themselves and their reinforcement.
Examples provided by Gunderson and Berkowitz are:
If the subject were to steal from someone they believe owes them money, it is not appropriate to shield them from prosecution If the subject attacks another inappropriately (either physically or verbally), it is not appropriate to condone this behaviour in order to avoid conflict.
Dialectical behavior therapy (DBT) is the most known treatment for those with BPD who did not thrive in cognitive behavioral therapy (CBT). This type of therapy proposes that those with BPD can more effectively manage their interactions with others by acquiring skills that better help them deal with stress, regulate emotions, and have quality relationships. This therapy includes one weekly hour of individual therapy, a two-hour group training session, communication outside of sessions, and a consultation team created for the therapist.
Mentalization-based treatment (MBT) is a therapy that proposes that symptoms in individuals with BPD form when the patient stops mentalizing, meaning they stop rationally thinking about the emotions in their own minds and others' minds. This leads individuals to disconnect from reality and operate from the certainty they feel about others' motives. MBT strengthens an individual's capability to operate under attachment stress. Therapists encourage patients to dig into their emotional and unrealistic thoughts and actions in a more grounded and open mindset and thought process. MBT encourages individuals to think in a hyperactive state of mind within themselves instead of the internalized insights that they create of the world.
Transference focused psychotherapy is a therapy that focuses on the interpersonal dynamics of the lives of individuals and what happens during their emotional states. Their interpersonal dynamic is brought out during therapy and later studied to resolve what the good and bad splits may affect an individuals personal lives. This mechanism helps individuals reach a more balanced way of thinking about themselves and about others.
Schema-focused therapy is a type of cognitive therapy that focuses on structural changes that may occur in an individual's life. This involves two weekly therapy sessions in which the therapist administers behavioral, experimental, and cognitive practices that focus on the individual's everyday life and activities that occur within it including any past traumatic experiences that may have occurred. This therapy works by changing the individual's way of negative thinking and believing into a healthier more functional way of thinking.
General psychiatric management focuses on individuals' lives outside of whatever therapy they may receive. It prioritizes their ability to function normally in their relationships and in their social functioning. By discussing an individual's symptoms and prognosis, therapists can create a plan for treatment.
Relationships Splitting creates instability in relationships because one person can be viewed as either personified virtue or personified vice at different times, depending on whether they gratify the subject's needs or frustrate them. This, along with similar oscillations in the experience and appraisal of the self, leads to chaotic and unstable relationship patterns, identity diffusion, and mood swings. The therapeutic process can be greatly impeded by these oscillations because the therapist too can come to be seen as all good or all bad. To attempt to overcome the negative effects on treatment outcomes, constant interpretations by the therapist are needed.
Splitting contributes to unstable relationships and intense emotional experiences. Splitting is common during adolescence, but is regarded as transient. It has been noted especially in persons diagnosed with BPD. Treatment strategies have been developed for individuals and groups based on DBT, and for couples. There are also self-help books on related topics such as mindfulness and emotional regulation that claim to be helpful for individuals who struggle with the consequences of splitting. The fear of incurring the social consequences of splitting has been theorised to lead people with BPD to avoid social or romantic relationships with those they perceive to be critical and/or prone to assertive or aggressive behaviour and conversely seek out individuals they perceive to be passive.
Many in relationships with individuals who struggle with splitting have stated that they feel as though they "tip-toe" through their relationship because there is a constant sense of duty and worrying that their partner will split and begin to see them as the "bad guy". Individuals have expressed the need to consistently validate and make sure their partner is understood due to their struggles with interpersonal identity and lack of self-worth. Hypersensitivity is one feature of BPD that caused individuals to both idolize and devalue the people they surround themselves with due to their fear of rejection. This is also expressed by an individual's need for intimacy followed by a fear of rejection and interpersonal aggression. Interpersonal rejection is a split response to the feeling of rejection that an individual may feel which can result in problems within friendships and relationships because of a disruption in an individual's interpersonal functioning.
Disorders
Autism spectrum disorder
Dichotomous or black and white thinking is a common feature of autism spectrum disorder.
Borderline personality disorder