Prithvi Narayan Shah (; 7 January 1723 – 11 January 1775) was the last monarch of the Gorkha Kingdom and the founding monarch of the unified Kingdom of Nepal, also referred to as the Gorkha Empire. He is credited with initiating the Unification of Nepal and relocating Kathmandu as the royal capital. He ruled Gorkha from 1743 to 1768 and Nepal from 1768 until his death in 1775. Through a series of strategic conquests, systemic economic blockades, and fragile political alliances, he expanded Gorkha's territory and laid the sovereign framework of modern Nepal.
Prithvi Narayan Shah played a central role in the formation of modern Nepal through his campaigns to unite different small kingdoms under one rule. He is considered a foundational titan in Nepalese history. His efforts to unify the fractured country and build a shared political identity earned him the historic title "Father of the Nation" and "King of Kings".
Scholars have drawn comparisons between his nation-building role and that of George Washington in the United States or Otto von Bismarck in Germany, citing his macro-regional vision and military leadership within the volatile context of 18th-century South Asia. His legacy remains deeply influential in Nepal's contemporary geopolitical, political, and cultural discourse.
Early years
Prithvi Narayan Shah was born prematurely on 7 January 1723 as the first child of Nara Bhupal Shah and Kaushalyavati Devi in the Gorkha Palace. Prince Prithvi Narayan Shah's education began at age five through standard palace rituals. At that time, the responsibility to educate him was given to Mokchyeshwor Aryal and Bhanu Aryal. They were the Brahmins who worked in the palace as astrologers, where they were also known as Jyotishi or Jaisi.
Even though the Gurus provided his primary education, the duty of developing his character was taken on by Queen Chandra Pravawati. It is documented that seeing the princes of neighboring states Tanahun, Lamjung, and Kaski indulge in excess pleasure, Chandra Pravawati deliberately isolated Prithvi Narayan Shah from comfortable or hedonistic pursuits. That is why no traces of pleasurable diversions can be found in his early life. Narbhupal Shah wanted him to marry a strong family so that it would assist him if needed. The best prospect of marriage that he saw fit was with the Kingdom of Makwanpur. Shah had turned 14 in 1737 C.E. and it was decided that he would marry Indra Kumari Devi, the daughter of Hemkarna Sen, the Princess of Makwanpur in Pre-Unification Nepal.
From a young age, he took an interest in the affairs of his father's state and soon began to take on administrative responsibilities. Prithvi Narayan Shah had an early dream of conquering Nuwakot, partially because his father had lost it to the Mallas of Kathmandu in an earlier military disaster.
After the death of his father in 1743 AD, Prithvi Narayan Shah ascended to the throne of Gorkha at the age of 20. As a king, he valued his people and enjoyed talking to them about their general concerns. This practice helped him to build a rapport with his people and helped him to understand the requirements of the citizens of Gorkha. King Shah sealed his borders and maintained a friendly diplomatic relationship with his immediate hill neighbors, with the exception of the East India Company, which ignored Nepal and refused to open equitable trade relations at the time.
Reign and military career
Before Prithvi Narayan Shah's unification movement, there were a total of 54 states in Nepal. The 54 states were named as Baisi Rajya and Chaubise Rajya. In the South-Eastern Terai, there were three Sen states: Makawanpur, Bijayapur, and Chaudandi. In the West, from Gorkha (includes parts west of Trishuli from present day Dhading) to Gandaki Province, there were 24 states. In the province of Karnali, there were 22 states with Kalyan, Samaal, Shahi and Chand dynasties. Along with Gorkha and Mustang, Bhaktapur, Kantipur and Lalitpur made up the remaining five states. When Prithvi Narayan Shah ascended to the throne of Gorkha on 3 April 1743 A.D., it was still a minor regional power. He then started to contemplate the methods for turning Gorkha into a vast and strong state. He went incognito to Varanasi to gain first-hand knowledge about the neighbouring states and about India to the south. During those days, Varanasi was one of the largest trade centres in India where people from different places gathered. He met with different strata of people and gained valuable understandings regarding the political and social vulnerabilities of the Indian Sub-Continent. In Varanasi, his father-in-law Abhiman Singh, a Thakuri Chief, procured for him some firearms and a quantity of modern ammunition.
Nuwakot
His first attempt at invasion of Nuwakot in 1743 CE failed and his reign began with an immediate military defeat. Conquering Nuwakot was essential for the unification, as it lay directly between Kathmandu and the Gorkha District, making it a vital commercial gateway to Tibet.
On his return to Gorkha from Varanasi, Prithvi Narayan Shah first took steps to isolate Nuwakot in the diplomatic field. He entered into friendly neutral alliances with the rival chiefs of Lamjung, Tanahun and Palpa. This done, Prithvi Narayan Shah sent an army against Nuwakot from three directions. The Chief of Nuwakot Kaji Jayanta Rana Magar (former Kaji of Gorkha) knowing that Gorkha was going to attack them in near future had gone to secure help from Jaya Prakash Malla, the king of Kantipur. Thus Kaji Jayanta Rana Magar's son, Commander of Nuwakot Sankha Mani Rana Magar, commanded the Nuwakot army representing his father. The Nuwakot army was routed in 1744 CE and the state passed into the hands of Prithvi Narayan Shah's Gorkha.
Kirtipur
Prithvi Narayan Shah's next strategy was to encircle all the positions around the Nepal valley or Kathmandu, and the neighboring regions, and thereby to create a crippling economic blockade in order that the conquest of Nepal valley might become inevitable. He first attacked Kirtipur, a dependency of Patan and a strategic post commanding the Nepal valley, but was signally defeated in 1757. He made a narrow escape from the battlefield but his trusted commander and prime minister Kalu Pande was killed. Pande's death meant an existential loss to the Gorkhas and it was not until 1763 that they were in a structural position to resume the policy of territorial conquest.
In 1765, Prithvi Narayan Shah attacked Kirtipur again after two humiliating defeats. In Kirtipur, King Prithvi Narayan conquered the ancient city on his third attempt. The ferocity with which the conquerors had dealt with the natives of Kirtipur struck terror into the hearts of the neighbouring people and made the final conquest easier by undermining resistance.
Makwanpur
In 1763, the Gorkhas conquered Makwanpur, one of the most critical gateways to Nepal from Bengal. The conquest of Makwanpur, however, brought Prithvi Narayan Shah into a violent collision with Mir Qasim, the Nawab of Bengal. Bikram Sen, the king of Makwanpur, was then taken prisoner by Prithvi Narayan Shah. Upon this Kanak Singh, another local Chief complained to Nawab Mir Qasim and requested his armed intervention. In consequence of this complaint, the Nawab crossed over sending Gurgin Khan before him who arrived near Makwanpur where his entire army was systematically ambushed and destroyed, forcing the Nawab to return to Patna. The expedition of Qasim was also determined by Gurgin Khan's eagerness to test the strength and skill of the troops whom he had disciplined and of the artillery which he had trained. Gurgin Khan's lust for the legendary Nepalese gold was another cause of his earnestness to lead the expedition, although the Nawab had counselled against it. Gurgin Khan lost a massive portion of his men and had to abandon many stands of modern weapons and artillery to the Gorkhalis.
Chaukot The Gorkhalis fought for six months with the people of Dhulikhel. After this Prithvi Narayan Shah built a fort on the top of the hill south of Chaukot and collected a large number of troops. On consulting with his followers, he was told by the kajis that small villages were easily taken, as the people fled when they heard the shouts of the assailants, but the village of Chaukot required advanced tactical skills. After this consultation, the troops blockaded Chaukot. Some of the people fled to Pyuthan by way of Basdol. Narasinha Rai went to Mahindra Sinha Rai and said, "We are unable to cope with the Gorkhalis with the help of fifty houses. The rest of the people have fled, and I have come to tell you. Do not delay but flee soon." Mahindra Sinha reproached him and charged him with cowardice, saying, "Do not stay for me but escape with your lives. As for myself, I will repulse the whole force of the Gorkhalis, and having earned great renown, will enjoy my possession in happiness." Then he called together his faithful followers and prepared for battle.
On the 6th of Jestha (28 May 1757), a severe battle was fought, which lasted from evening until midnight. The Gorkhalis, having lost 131 men, retreated. The battle was renewed daily for fifteen days, without the Gorkhalis making any impression. On the 16th day a hotly contested battle was fought. At this time a soldier, getting behind Mahindra Sinha, killed him with a khoda and a lance and wounded Narasinha in the left shoulder with a Khukuri, due to which he fell senseless to the ground. Seeing this, the Chaukotiyas fled, and the village was set on fire. In this campaign, the Gorkhalis lost 332 men in total.
The next morning Prithvi Narayan Shah inspected the field of battle, and seeing Mahindra Sinha Rai's lifeless body pierced with wounds, he praised his bravery and sent for his family, that they being the relatives of so brave a man, might have proper protection. They were brought and fed in the royal kitchen. After this, having with ease captured five surrounding villages, viz., Panauti, Banepa, Nala, Khadpu, and Sanga, Prithvi Narayan Shah returned to Nuwakot.
Kathmandu Valley
After these peripheral victories, he intended to take possession of the highly urbanized Kathmandu Valley. Prithvi Narayan Shah's conquest of the whole of Nepal was rendered easier by the chronic internal dissensions among the Malla rulers. Ranjit Malla, the chief of Bhadgaon, foolishly invoked the assistance of the Gorkha Chief due to his bitter feud with the rival chiefs of Patan and Kathmandu. Prithvi Narayan Shah had previously gained over the Satbahalyas of Ranjit Malla by promising to leave them nominal rights while securing his tactical dominance over the country.
Prithvi Narayan Shah took possession of Bhadgaon and next invested Patan in 1767. The rapid expansion of the Gorkha dominions and the growth of the Gorkha power round the Nepal valley placed Jaya Prakash Malla, the Chief of Kathmandu, in a state of absolute siege. All egress and ingress having been stopped, Kathmandu faced the immediate danger of being starved into submission. The valley was completely cut off from the outside world and was controlled solely by Shah's blockading outposts. Having understood that the Gorkhas could not be defeated by his army alone, Jaya Prakash in this predicament sought emergency military assistance from the Bengal Presidency by sending an emissary to Patna in order to ask for an intervention from the East India Company. The officers in Patna of the East India Company dispatched the message to Bengal, eager to exploit the dynamic. The East India Company seized the opportunity, sent an ultimatum to Prithvi Narayan Shah, and decided to send an expeditionary force to relieve Jaya Prakash Malla.