The Special Tribunal for Lebanon (STL), also referred to as the Lebanon Tribunal or the Hariri Tribunal, was a tribunal of international character that was active between 2009 and 2023. It applied Lebanese criminal law under the authority of the United Nations to carry out the investigation and prosecution of those responsible for 14 February 2005 assassination of Rafic Hariri, the former Lebanese prime minister, and the deaths of 21 others, as well as those responsible for connected attacks.
The Tribunal officially opened on 1 March 2009 and had primacy over the national courts of Lebanon. The Tribunal sat in Leidschendam, on the outskirts of The Hague, Netherlands, and had a field office in the Lebanese capital, Beirut. Its official languages were Arabic, French and English. The Tribunal was unique among international criminal tribunals in that it had the right to hold trials in absentia, and it was the first to deal with terrorism as a distinct crime. (All of the defendants who were indicted by the tribunal were prosecuted in absentia.) The Tribunal's eleven judges, a combination of Lebanese and international judges, were appointed by the UN Secretary-General for a renewable term of three years.
The Tribunal's mandate was initially three years. However, there was no fixed timeline for the judicial work to be completed. The mandate was subsequently extended through to 2023 to allow the Tribunal to complete its work before it was ultimately shut down.
The verdict was eventually issued on 18 August 2020, which was originally set on 7 August, but postponed following the 2020 Beirut explosion. The verdict found Salim Ayyash, member of Hezbollah's Unit 121, guilty in absentia of five counts, including conspiracy to commit a terrorist act and the intentional homicide of Hariri and others. The conviction was primarily based on circumstantial evidence, notably mobile phone records that linked Ayyash to the surveillance and coordination of the attack.
In July 2021, the Special Tribunal for Lebanon announced that it faced financial difficulties due to a lack of funding, primarily driven by Lebanon's deepening economic crisis. Ultimately, on 31 December 2023, UN spokesperson Stéphane Dujarric announced the STL's closure.
History In March 2006, United Nations Security Council Resolution 1664, the Security Council requested the Secretary-General consult with the Lebanese government on the establishment of an international tribunal to try those responsible for the 14 February 2005 attack. The Lebanese government and United Nations signed an agreement for the Special Tribunal for Lebanon on 23 January 2007 and 6 February 2007 respectively. However, the Lebanese Prime Minister wrote to the UN Secretary-General in May 2007 stating that the Speaker refused to convene Parliament, and therefore the agreement could not be ratified, despite the support of a majority of parliamentarians.
Due to this political impasse, the Security Council implemented the agreement through United Nations Security Council Resolution 1757 on 30 May 2007, under Chapter VII of the United Nations Charter. According to the resolution, the agreement (attached as an annexe) would enter into force on 10 June 2007, unless Lebanon informed the United Nations that it complied with the legal requirements for its entry into force before that date. The political stalemate did not resolve itself, and the Agreement therefore came into force on 10 June 2007.
Following its legal establishment, the Secretary-General of the United Nations announced on 17 August 2007 that the Netherlands had agreed to host the Tribunal. The UN and the Netherlands signed a headquarters agreement to formalize the agreement on 21 December 2007.
The Tribunal opened its doors on 1 March 2009, taking over jurisdiction from the United Nations International Independent Investigation Commission (UNIIIC), whose mandate ended on 28 February 2009.
Jurisdiction The Tribunal was established to "try all those who are found responsible for the [February 14th, 2005] terrorist crime which killed the former Lebanese Prime Minister Rafic Hariri and others." Its jurisdiction could be extended beyond that event to other attacks in Lebanon between 1 October 2004 and 12 December 2005, if there was sufficient evidence showing they were connected and of a similar nature and gravity to the 14 February attack. Human Rights Watch had argued that the tribunal should have been given jurisdiction over 14 other attacks perpetrated in Lebanon since 1 October 2004. The Tribunal is the first of the UN-based international criminal court to try a terrorist crime committed against a specific person.
Mandate The Tribunal's mandate was initially set for three years, but has been extended by the UN Secretary-General (in consultation with the Government of Lebanon and the Security Council) to allow the Tribunal to complete its work. In 2015, UN Secretary-General Ban Ki-moon "reaffirmed the commitment of the UN to support the work of the Tribunal to bring those responsible to justice and to ensure that impunity for such major crimes will not be tolerated," and extended the Tribunal's mandate until 2018. The mandate may be further extended if cases are still ongoing.
Applicable law The Tribunal applies Lebanese criminal law, with judges guided by both the Lebanese Code of Criminal Procedure and other materials reflecting the highest standards of international criminal procedure.
Accordingly, it also is similar to Section I for War Crimes and Section II for Organized Crime, Economic Crime and Corruption of the Criminal and Appellate Divisions of the Court of Bosnia and Herzegovina which has such "hybrid" chambers, as well as to the Special Court for Sierra Leone and the Extraordinary Chambers in the Courts of Cambodia (ECCC).
Structure and staff The STL is composed of four organs: Chambers, which consists of a Pre-Trial Judge, a Trial Chamber, and an Appeals Chamber;Statute of the Special Tribunal for Lebanon, Article 7. the Registry, responsible for the administration of the Tribunal;Statute of the Special Tribunal for Lebanon, Article 12. the Office of the Prosecutor;Statute of the Special Tribunal for Lebanon, Article 11. and the Defense Office.Statute of the Special Tribunal for Lebanon, Article 13. International Center for Transitional Justice The STL Statute also allows for victims to participate in the proceedings, through legal representatives. In the administrative structure of the Tribunal, victim participation falls under the Registry.
Chambers
The Chambers are composed of an international Pre-Trial Judge, three Trial Chamber judges (one Lebanese and two international), five Appeals Chamber judges (two Lebanese and three international), and two alternate judges (one Lebanese and one international).Statute of the Special Tribunal for Lebanon, Article 8(1). The alternate judges may be assigned by the Tribunal President (at the request of the presiding judge of the Trial Chamber) to be present at each stage of the trial, and replace a judge who is unable to continue sitting.Statute of the Special Tribunal for Lebanon, Article 8(3).
Judges are appointed by the Secretary-General of the United Nations for a three-year period, which can be renewed.
Both the Trial Chamber and the Appeals Chamber elect a presiding judge to conduct the proceedings.Statute of the Special Tribunal for Lebanon, Article 8(2). The presiding judge of the Appeals Chamber is also the President of the Special Tribunal.STL Rules of Procedure and Evidence, Rule 31 The term of the President is normally one and a half years.STL Rules of Procedure and Evidence, Rule 31(C).
The President has a number of functions and responsibilities, including coordinating the work of the Chambers to ensure the effective functioning of the Tribunal and good administration of justice; supervising the activities of the Registry; issuing Practice Directions (in consultation with the Council of Judges, Registrar, Head of Defence Office, and Prosecutor); and representing the Tribunal in international relations.STL Rules of Procedure and Evidence, Rule 32. The President is also responsible for submitting an annual report on the Tribunal's activities to the Secretary-General of the United Nations and the Government of Lebanon.Statute of the Special Tribunal for Lebanon, Article 10(2).
The first President of the Tribunal was the late Antonio Cassese.Tributes to Judge Antonio Cassese (1937 to 2011). Special Tribunal for Lebanon website. Undated. Following his resignation, Cassese was succeeded by Sir David Baragwanath, elected on 10 October 2011.Tribunal appoints new President (Press release). The Hague, Netherlands: Special Tribunal for Lebanon. 10 October 2011. Baragwanath was succeeded by Judge Ivana Hrdličková, who was elected on 19 February 2015.Election of Judge Ivana Hrdličková as new STL President (Press release). The Hague, Netherlands: Special Tribunal for Lebanon. 19 February 2015. She was re-elected on 4 July 2016.Re-election of STL President and Vice President (Press release). The Hague, Netherlands: Special Tribunal for Lebanon. 4 July 2016.
The Appeals Chamber also elects a vice-president for a one-and-a-half-year term.STL Rules of Procedure and Evidence, Rule 33. The vice-president exercises the President's functions when the President is absent or unable to act, and any other function delegated by the President.STL Rules of Procedure and Evidence, Rule 34.
Lebanese Judge Ralph Riachi has been vice-president of the Tribunal since it opened in 2009,Vice-president - Judge Ralph Riachi. Special Tribunal for Lebanon website. 7 June 2011. and was most recently re-elected on 4 July 2016.
Judges Name State Position(s) Term began Term ended Appeals chamber judge / President (former) In office Appeals chamber judge Appeals chamber judge / President (former) Appeals chamber judge In office Pre-trial judge In office Appeals chamber judge / Vice-president (current) In office Trial chamber judge / Trial chamber judge (alternate) In office Trial chamber judge In office Trial chamber judge In office Trial chamber judge In office Trial chamber judge Appeals chamber judge In office Appeals chamber judge / President (current) In office Trial chamber judge / Trial chamber judge (alternate) In office Trial chamber judge In office
Registry
The Registry is responsible for administering and servicing the Tribunal, under the authority of the PresidentStatute of the Special Tribunal for Lebanon, Article 12(1). and the direction of the Registrar.Statute of the Special Tribunal for Lebanon, Article 12(2).
The Registry's Judicial Division ensures the efficient functioning of hearings, and consists of the Court Management and Services Section, Victims and Witnesses Unit,Statute of the Special Tribunal for Lebanon, Article 12(4). Victims' Participation Unit, Language Services Section, Detention Facility, and Information Services Section.Registry. Special Tribunal for Lebanon website. Undated. The Registry's Division of Administration provides administrative services to the whole Tribunal, and includes the Human and Financial Resources Services Section, Budget Unit, Procurement Section, and the General Services Section. The Registry's Security and Safety Section provides security for the Tribunal's personnel, facilities, assets and programmes.
The Registrar is appointed by the United Nations Secretary-General for a three-year term, which can be renewed.Statute of the Special Tribunal for Lebanon, Article 12(3). Ban Ki-moon appointed Robin Vincent as the first Registrar of the Tribunal on 11 March 2008. He oversaw the 'start-up phase' of STL, successfully guiding the court to its first public broadcast.