The Russian Empire officially recognized the United States of America in 1803. However, Russia had established trade relations with the Thirteen Colonies well before they issued the United States Declaration of Independence in 1776. This commerce, which violated the Navigation Acts of the British Empire, continued to take place during the American Revolution. Although Russian empress Catherine the Great decided against openly endorsing either side during the American Revolutionary War, she did hold the view that it was the "personal fault" of British policy and also believed that secession among British colonies in the Americas could be "advantageous" to her realm. Russia's position on the United States, therefore, largely facilitated France's pro-American position and contributed to the British defeat in 1783.
Diplomats were first exchanged between Saint Petersburg and Washington, D.C., in 1809. During the American Civil War, Russia openly supported the Union and while it refrained from entering the conflict as a belligerent, the Imperial Russian Navy maintained a presence in American ports as a show of force against the Confederacy. In 1867, the Alaska Purchase resulted in the American acquisition of Alaska, which had previously been a Russian colony in North America. Following the collapse of the Russian Empire in 1917 (the year of American entry into World War I), the United States supported the White movement until 1920. However, the Allied effort to support the White movement was ultimately unsuccessful, as the Russian Civil War ended with the establishment of the Soviet Union.
There were points of contention in Russia's relationship with the United States, particularly over Russian pogroms between 1890 and 1914. Large-scale immigration to the United States from the Russian Empire did not take place until the late 19th century, mostly attracting Jews, Poles, Lithuanians, and Finns, but also a few ethnic Russians. During this period, the two sides also began to cooperate on issues like maritime law and trade, which continued into the early 20th century.
Russian involvement in the American Revolutionary War
Relations between the two countries began in 1776, when the United States declared its independence from Great Britain.
Earlier contacts had occurred. In 1763, a Boston merchant had anchored his ship at the port of Kronstadt after a direct transatlantic voyage.
Despite being geographically removed from the North American scene, Russia under Catherine the Great significantly affected the American Revolution through diplomacy. While Catherine personally oversaw most Russian interactions with the new country, she also entrusted certain tasks to her foreign advisor, Nikita Ivanovich Panin, who often acted on Catherine's behalf when it came to matters of international diplomacy. Catherine and Panin interacted with the British government through James Harris, 1st Earl of Malmesbury, at the Russian court.Frank A. Golder, "Catherine II and the American Revolution," The American Historical Review 21.1 (1915): 92–96. The decisions made by Catherine and Panin during the Revolution to remain officially neutral, refuse Great Britain's requests for military assistance, and insist on peace talks that linked a resolution of the American Revolution with the settlement of separate European conflicts indirectly helped the Americans win the Revolution and gain independence.Hans Rogger, "The influence of the American Revolution in Russia." in Jack P. Greene and J. R. Pole, eds. A Companion to the American Revolution (2000): pp. 554-555.
Russian-American trade Small scale direct trade between Russia and British North America began as early as 1763. Such trade was a violation of the British Navigation Acts, which allowed the Thirteen Colonies to trade only with Great Britain. Russian products, such as hemp, sail linen and iron, had started arriving in colonial ports years before the American Revolutionary War began and did not stop when the war started.Nikolai Bolkhovitinov, Russia and the American Revolution (Tallahassee: Diplomatic, 1976): 76. America and Russia saw each other as trading partners.
Throughout the Revolutionary War, Catherine believed an independent American nation would be ideal for Russian business interests. While some Russian leaders worried that an independent America might interfere with Russia's trade with other European nations, Catherine saw direct Russian-American trade as an excellent opportunity to expand commerce. Catherine knew that after the war, a free America could trade directly with Russia without interference. Moreover, if the Americans gained their independence, Britain would have to turn to other countries such as Russia to supply it with the resources that could no longer be acquired from North America, such as timber for the Royal Navy.Bolkhovitinov, Russia and the American Revolution, pp. 80–84.
Neutrality Catherine chose to have Russia remain officially neutral during the Revolution and never openly picked sides during the war.Golder, "Catherine II and the American Revolution," 92. On an unofficial basis, however, she acted favorably towards the American colonists by offering to provide them all that she could without compromising Russia's neutrality and her eventual desire to act as a mediator.
In March 1780, the Russian ministry released a "Declaration of Armed Neutrality." That set out Russia's international stance on the American Revolution and focused on the importance of allowing neutral vessels to travel freely to any Russian port without them being searched or harassed by the Navigation Acts. While the declaration kept Russia officially neutral, it supported many of France's own pro-American policies and resisted Britain's efforts to defeat the Americans via naval blockades. The declaration also gave the North American rebels an emotional lift, as they realized Russia was not solidly aligned with Great Britain.Norman Saul, Distant Friends: the United States and Russia, 1763–1867 (Lawrence: University of Kansas, 1991): 12. With Russia as a potential, powerful friend, Russian-U.S. connections and communications continued to improve. Nevertheless, Catherine refused to recognize the United States openly as an independent nation until the war had ended.
Great Britain's requests for assistance As the Revolutionary War continued into the late 1770s, a growing list of European powers took sides against Great Britain. The British saw a need to solidify an alliance with Russia to bolster its North American war. As a world power that had previously allied with Britain, Russia was an obvious choice to assist with logistical and military support, as well as diplomatic efforts.Golder, "Catherine II and the American Revolution," p. 93. While Catherine admired the British people and culture, she disliked George III and his ministers. She was particularly disturbed by the Seven Years' War during which Catherine observed Britain's efforts to exit the conflict discreetly, which left Russia's ally Prussia vulnerable to defeat. She considered those efforts immoral and disloyal and saw Britain as an unreliable ally. She also viewed the American Revolution as Britain's fault. Citing the constant change in Britain's ministries as a major reason, Catherine understood the Americans' grievances.Lawrence Kaplan, The American Revolution and "a Candid World" (Kent: Kent State UP, 1977): p. 91.
Despite Russia's official neutrality, Catherine's negative opinions of the British government and her view that Britain had caused the conflict weighed on her decisions when Britain began to request Russian support. In the summer of 1775, Britain sent diplomats to Russia in an attempt to learn whether Catherine would agree to send troops to North America to aid Britain's forces. Although her initial response seemed positive, Catherine denied Britain's formal request for support. While her dislike of the British ministry likely influenced her decision, Catherine formally cited the fact that her army needed rest after it had just finished more than six years of war.Saul, Distant Friends: the United States and Russia, 7.
In November 1779, Britain made another plea for Russian assistance. The plea acknowledged to Catherine the collective power of Britain's enemies, as well as George III's desire for peace. The British letter to Catherine explained those concerns and offered to "commit her [Britain's] interests to the hand of the Empress."Golder, "Catherine II and the American Revolution," p. 94. After waiting several months, Catherine decided to refuse the request. In 1781, distressed and realizing that the British were close to losing the war, James Harris asked if a piece of British territory could convince Russia to join the fight. Offering the island of Minorca, Harris did not request soldiers in exchange. This time, Harris simply asked for Russia to convince France to exit the war and to force the Americans to fight alone. However, Catherine merely used Harris's proposal to embarrass the British government. She declined Harris's offer and publicized it to the French and the Spanish.Golder, "Catherine II and the American Revolution," p. 95.
Attempt at peacemaking Catherine played a significant role in peacemaking efforts during the Revolutionary War. In October 1780, she sent a proposal to each of the European powers involved in the conflict. The proposal requested for the countries to meet to discuss what could be done to create peace. The powers met in Vienna after Great Britain requested for the Austrian ministry to co-mediate the peace talks. Catherine sent Prince Dimitri Galitzin to act on her behalf as the Russian mediator. She sent him with a proposed set of peace guidelines that included a multi-year armistice between the countries and a requirement for negotiations between Great Britain and its European enemies as well as between Great Britain and the Americans. Catherine chose not to include a proposal concerning whether the U.S. would become autonomous. Since the British would not accept U.S. independence, and the French would not accept anything short of it, Catherine realized that explicitly providing for either outcome would lead to an immediate breakdown in the talks.Bolkhovitinov, Russia and the American Revolution, pp. 50–52. Catherine's ambiguous negotiation efforts ultimately fell through.
19th century In 1801 Thomas Jefferson appointed Levett Harris as the first American consul-general to Russia (1803–1816). Russia attempted to join as a third-party mediator of peace in the War of 1812, but this idea was rejected by British officials.
The Monroe Doctrine was partly aimed at Holy Alliance support of intervention in Latin America which Russia several times tried to get the United States to join, as well as the Ukase of 1821 banning non-Russian ships from the Northwest Coast. The Russo-American Treaty of 1824 set parallel 54°40′ north as the boundary between Russian America and the Anglo-American Oregon Country.
American Civil War