Shabbat () is the first tractate of Seder Moed ('Order [of] Appointed Times') of the Mishnah and of the Talmud. The tractate deals with the laws of observance of and practices regarding Shabbat, the biblical Sabbath in Judaism. The tractate focuses primarily on the categories and types of activities prohibited on the Sabbath according to interpretations of many verses in the Torah, notably Exodus 20:9–10 and Deuteronomy 5:13–14.
The Mishnah and Talmud go to great lengths to carefully define and precisely determine the observance of the Sabbath. The tractate is thus one of the longest in terms of chapters in the Mishnah and folio pages in the Talmud. It comprises 24 chapters and has a Gemara—rabbinical analysis of and commentary on the Mishnah—in both the Babylonian Talmud and all but the last four chapters of the Jerusalem Talmud. There is also a Tosefta of 18 chapters on this tractate.
As its name suggests, the tractate primarily addresses the laws and regulations governing the observance of the Jewish Sabbath. It is enumerated as the fourth commandment among the Ten Commandments and constitutes a central element of Rabbinic Judaism and Jewish law (; ). Consequently, this subject is extensively discussed in the Mishnah and the Gemara, and numerous subsequent commentaries have been authored on this tractate from the early Middle Ages to the present. In the Babylonian Talmud, the Gemara also contains a discussion of the laws of Hanukkah. The detailed in tractate Shabbat, and the subsequent legal codes based on it, continue to be followed by observant Jewish communities in modern Israel and the Jewish diaspora.
Subject matter
This tractate primarily covers the laws of observing Shabbat, the weekly day of rest. It provides comprehensive explanations of the types of activities prohibited on Shabbat, the sources in the Torah for these prohibitions, the details of the laws, and the rabbinic rulings connected with them. It also deals with matters concerning other () that apply on Shabbat. In addition, the main discussion about the laws of Hanukkah are included in the Babylonian Talmud.
The Sabbath is one of the most important religious practices of normative Judaism, and the Mishnah and Talmud go to great lengths to carefully define and precisely determine how it is to be observed. This concern reflected its importance in the biblical sources, where there are more reminders of Sabbath observance than of any other matter, with the possible exception of the prohibitions against idolatry.
Biblical passages concerning the topics discussed in this tractate include the foundational concept of the Sabbath recounted in Genesis 2:2–3, the two iterations of the Fourth Commandment prohibiting creative work recorded in Exodus 20:7–10 and Deuteronomy 5:12–14, respectively, and other actions, such as desisting from weekday pursuits (Isaiah 58:13–14) and carrying loads associated with working (Jeremiah 17:21–22), among others.Other Tanakhic references cited as sources for tractate Shabbat include , , , , and ; , , and
Halakha Jewish law () relating to Shabbat and the activities prohibited on Shabbat in particular, are the primary subject matter of the tractate. Prohibited actions derived from the Torah, and rabbinic rulings designed to safeguard or enhance the practices of the cessation of labor and Sabbath rest, are as follows:
Activities prohibited on Shabbat (): Thirty-nine forms of "creative work" with their derivatives that are forbidden on the Sabbath are defined by the Mishnah (Shabbat 7:2). They are called () and are specified or implied from the work required to make the Tabernacle in the desert, which is described immediately following the commandment to observe the Sabbath in the Torah. Other actions that derive from these principal categories, called (), which could lead to performing one of the , were added to the prohibition. Rabbinically prohibited activities of Shabbat (): referring to "rest" from acts that are not within the definition of but are considered to be inconsistent with the sanctity of the Sabbath and were thus prohibited so as to honor the Sabbath and prevent the violation of Torah prohibitions or to enhance the sanctity of the day by refraining from weekday pursuits, such as business, in accordance with the biblical mandates to transform the day into "a Shabbat of solemn rest, holy to the " (Exodus 31:15) and to "call the Shabbat a delight, and the holy of the honorable; and you shall honor it, not doing your usual ways, nor, pursuing your business, nor speaking thereof" (Isaiah 58:13–14). (): referring to certain items and articles that are "set apart" and prohibited from being lifted or handled on the Sabbath, even though no work was involved; several categories of are specified in this tractate, including items whose purpose was specifically for, or could be used for an activity that was not permitted on the Sabbath, items that had not specifically been set aside for use on the Sabbath, or items that had not been available before the Sabbath began. (): the transfer of an article of significant size from a private domain to a public domain, or vice versa, and carrying an object four cubits in a public domain is forbidden by the Torah; large portion of this tractate, and the following tractate, Eruvin, are devoted to a detailed analysis of laws of carrying on the Sabbath, between four defined domains: private, public, semi-public and an exempt area, including both biblical and rabbinical prohibitions. (): the prohibition on traveling a certain distance outside one's dwelling place (or the edge of one's city, if in a city).
Aggada In addition to the legal discussions and analysis of the Mishnah, the Gemara in this tractate contains a considerable amount of Aggadah, including narratives and historical stories, as well as moral tales, exegetical interpretations, and sayings.
A significant narrative section describes the origin of Hanukkah, relating that when the Hasmoneans defeated the Seleucid overlords and purified the Temple in Jerusalem, they found only one small jar of pure oil sealed with the High Priest of Israel's seal and apparently sufficient for a single day only; but by a miracle it lasted for eight days, so that the festival of Hanukkah is celebrated for eight days.
Other narratives describe how Chazal considered excluding the books of Ezekiel, Ecclesiastes and Proverbs from the canon of the Hebrew Bible; however, once interpretations and explanations for the passages that appear contradictory were provided, decided that they should be included.
Also discussed is Rabbi Simeon bar Yohai, who was forced to flee and lived in a cave for twelve years following his criticism of the Roman conquerors and rulers of the Land of Israel.
The gentleness of the sage Hillel the Elder contrasted with the severity of Shammai is illustrated by several examples. Among the sayings and ethical teachings are Hillel's famous distillation of Judaism, "What is hateful to you, do not do to your neighbor" (Shabbat 31a:6). Other aggadic sayings cited include "'Truth' is the seal of God" (Shabbat 55a:12) and, per Eliezer ben Hurcanus, "Repent one day before your death" (Shabbat 153a:5)—meaning always be ready to appear before God, an idea also illustrated by a parable of wise and foolish people invited to a royal feast.
The Torah is extolled in an aggadic passage (Shabbat 88a:6) which says that God specified that the world would return to primordial chaos unless the people of Israel accepted the Torah, that Israel accepted it joyfully and Moses fought to obtain it, in appreciation of an understanding that God's kingdom on earth can be established only after struggle. The Gemara also elucidates that antisemitism and anti-Judaism are a religious animosity dating from the time when the revelation at Sinai gave the people of Israel a faith which differentiated them from other nations.
In relation to the Sabbath, the primary theme of this tractate, an aggadah relates that the Sages found the spiritual significance of the Sabbath in the desire to be in harmony with God, as the core and essence of Judaism. Also recounted is the tradition that two angels accompany religious Jews home from the synagogue on Friday evening after the Kabbalat Shabbat service.
Structure and content The tractate consists of 24 chapters and 138 paragraphs () and has a Gemara—rabbinical analysis of and commentary on the Mishnah—in both the Babylonian Talmud and all but the last four chapters of the Jerusalem Talmud. There is also a Tosefta of 18 chapters for this tractate.
In standard printed editions of the Babylonian Talmud, the Gemara contains 157 folio (double-sided) pages and is the longest tractate by page count after tractate Bava Batra, which has 176 folio pages. There are 92 folio pages of Gemara in the Jerusalem Talmud.
In the Jerusalem Talmud, the Gemara for the last four chapters of the Mishnah no longer exists. Handwritten manuscripts of these four chapters likely existed before the age of printing but that all the copies were destroyed in periodic acts of antisemitic violence, as well as by acts of deliberate destruction and suppression of the Talmud, such as at the Disputation of Paris.
The in the tractate are arranged in a sequential order, apart from the first one, which addresses the topic of carrying loads on Shabbat, but which can, however, be relevant right at the beginning of Shabbat. The tractate then continues to discuss what may not be done on Friday afternoon and proceeds to topics relevant to actions and preparations immediately before Shabbat.
The tractate then deals with lighting Shabbat candles, discussing the oils and wicks that may be used for Shabbat lights; it goes on to discuss matters concerning Sabbath food preparation such as which food may be stored for Shabbat, and keeping food hot for the Shabbat meals by leaving it on top of a stove from before Shabbat and insulating hot food before the beginning of Shabbat; and then continues to discuss the laws of carrying loads on Shabbat—mentioned first at the beginning of the tractate—for transferring things from one domain to another—a concept known as .
The Mishnah then lists the 39 Melakhot, or activities prohibited from performing on Shabbat as proscribed by the Torah; these are discussed in detail in the subsequent chapters. Then, the tractate covers several subjects, including those actions that are rabbinical injunctions, such as —rabbinically prohibited activities of Shabbat—and , or objects forbidden from use on Shabbat. The tractate concludes with laws applicable at the end of Shabbat, such as walking to the furthest extent of the () to get an early start on a journey, and the laws of taking care of animals on Shabbat.
An overview of the chapters is as follows: Chapter 1 deals with the issue of "domains", including ways in which things may not be brought from a private domain to the public domain and vice versa on Shabbat, and with questions concerning what may or may not be done on , or the part of Friday before sunset, when Shabbat begins. Chapter 2 deals with the lighting of Shabbat lights, the kinds of oil which may be used, and the materials which may serve as wicks, along with further details concerning lamps, cases in which lamps may be extinguished on Shabbat, actions that typically women must do, and tasks that the head of the household—male or female—needs to remind household members to do before Shabbat begins. Chapter 3 examines permitted and prohibited methods of keeping food warm or warming food up on Shabbat, and things which are regarded as set apart (i.e., ) and which one is forbidden to move on that day. Chapter 4 continues the discussion of topics from Chapter 3.