Cantabrian (, in Cantabrian) is a vernacular Romance linguistic variety, most often classified as part of the Asturleonese linguistic group. It is indigenous to the territories in and surrounding the Autonomous Community of Cantabria, in Northern Spain. The language is currently relegated to the rural dialects, while most of the population speaks a more or less standard version of Spanish.
Traditionally, some dialects of this group have been further grouped by the name ('from the Mountain'), ('the Mountain') being a traditional name for Cantabria due to its mountainous topography. Currently, this name is reserved for the western dialect, grouping under the name of the variety of the eastern valleys.
Distribution
These dialects belong to the Northwestern Iberian dialect continuum and have been classified as belonging to the Astur-Leonese domain by successive research works carried out through the 20th century, the first of them, the famous work , by Ramón Menéndez Pidal.
This dialect group spans the whole territory of Cantabria. In addition, there is historical evidence of traits (such as toponyms, or certain constructions) linking the speech of some nearby areas to the Cantabrian Astur-Leonese group: The western part of Las Encartaciones, in Biscay. Bordering areas with Burgos: especially the upper valleys of Espinosa de los Monteros, where Pasiegu dialect was spoken. Bordering areas with Palencia Valleys of Peñamellera Baja, Peñamellera Alta, eastern Llanes and Ribadedeva, in the easternmost part of Asturias.
Some of these areas had historically been linked to Cantabria before the 1833 territorial division of Spain, and the creation of the Province of Santander (with the same territory as the modern-day Autonomous Community).
Dialects
Based on the location where dialects are spoken, we find a traditional dialectal division of Cantabria, which normally corresponds to the different valleys or territories:
+ Traditional dialects of Cantabria Autoglottonym Area of usage Meaning of name Montañés La Montaña, i.e. Coastal and Western parts of Cantabria Of or pertaining to the people of La Montaña Pasiegu Pas, Pisueña and upper Miera valleys Of or pertaining to the people of Pas Pejín Western coastal villagesFrom peje, "fish" Pejinu Eastern coastal villages Tudancu Tudanca Of or pertaining to the people of Tudanca
However, based on linguistic evidence, R. Molleda proposed what is today the usual division of dialectal areas in Cantabria. Molleda proposed to take the isogloss of the masculine plural gender morphology, which seems to surround a large portion of Eastern Cantabria, running from the mouth of the Besaya River in the North, and along the Pas-Besaya watershed. He then proceeded to name the resulting areas Western and Eastern, depending on the location to the West or East of the isogloss. This division has gained support due to the fact that, although masculine morphology by itself is not a very important difference, many other isoglosses draw the same line.
Linguistic description
The Cantabrian set of consonants is nearly identical to those of its neighbouring languages of the dialectal continuum, the Asturian and the Northern Peninsular Spanish. An important difference is the preservation of the voiceless glottal fricative (/h/) as an evolution of Latin's word initial f- as well as the [x-h] mergers; both features are also found in Eastern Asturian as well as some Spanish dialects, especially those from Southern Spain and parts of Latin America. The preservation of the voiceless glottal fricative was usual in Middle Spanish, before the /h/ in words like /humo/, from Latin , resulted in Modern Spanish /umo/. Every Cantabrian dialect keeps /f/ before consonants such as in /'fɾi.u/ (cold), just as Astur-Leonese and Spanish do.
+ Results of Latin initial /f/ in Cantabrian Dialects Feature Western Dialects Eastern Dialects Gloss Coastal Valleys Inner Valleys f+C/f/ /'fɾi.u/ frigĭdus cold f+w /h/ /'hue.gu/ /f/ /'fue.gu/ /f/ or /x/ /'hue.gu/ or /'xue.gu/ focus hearth, later fire f+j /h/ /'hie.ru/Ø /'ie.ru/ ferrum iron f+V /h/ /ha'θeɾ/ Ø /a'θeɾ/ facĕre to do (verb)
The [x - h] merger is typical in most Western and Eastern Coastal dialects, where [x] merges into [h]. However, the Eastern dialects from the Inner Valleys have merged [h] into [x]; moreover, there are older speakers that lack any kind of merger, fully distinguishing the minimal pair /huegu/ - /xuegu/ (fire - game).
+ [x - h] merger in Cantabrian Dialects Western dialects Eastern dialects Gloss Coastal Valleys Inner Valleys [h] ['hue.ɣ̞u] [h] ['hue.ɣ̞u] no, or [x] ['xue.ɣ̞u] iocus joke, later game
Other features of the Cantabrian consonant set, particular to the eastern and western varieties are:
In the Eastern dialect in Valles Pasiegos, becomes before voiced consonants. citing This has also occurred in the names of the rivers Arlanza and Arlanzón in Burgos. Also in Pasiegu, syllable-final word-internal and are frequently confused. In the Western dialect of Tudanca and neighboring zones, can be aspirated, that is, pronounced as , when before consonants, or at the end of a word and before another word which begins with a vowel, as in 'the ears'. However, cannot be aspirated before a pause in this zone. Similar patterns of -aspiration have been found in some other Astur-leonese zones as well.
Other features are common to most Astur-Leonese dialects; some of these are:
Use of /u/ as masculine singular gender morpheme: most dialects use a closed central rounded vowel [ʉ], as masculine morpheme, although only eastern dialects have shown [ʉ] - [u] contrast. Opposition between singular and plural masculine gender morphemes. The dialectal boundaries of this feature are usually used to represent the western and eastern dialects: Western Dialects oppose /u/ masculine singular marker to /os/ masculine plural marker. E.g. perru (dog) but perros (dogs). Eastern Dialects used to oppose /ʉ/+metaphony (masc. sing.) to /us/ (masc. plural). E.g. pirru ['pɨ.rʉ] (dog) but perrus (dogs). This opposition is nearly lost and only few speakers of the Pasiegu dialect still use it. Nowadays, the most common situation is the no-opposition, using /u/ as a masculine morpheme both in singular and plural. Mass neuter: this feature marks uncountableness in nouns, pronouns, articles, adjectives and quantifiers. As in general Astur-Leonese, the neuter morpheme is /o/, rendering an opposition between pelo (the hair) and pelu (one strand of hair), however the actual development of this feature changes from dialect to dialect: Most western dialects have recently lost this distinction in nominal and adjectival morphology, merging masculine and neuter morphology (pelu for both previous examples), although keeping this distinction in pronouns, quantifiers and articles, so lo (it, neuter) would refer to pelu (the hair, uncountable), but lu (it, masculine) would refer to pelu (hair strand, countable). Eastern dialects show a more complex behaviour, with metaphony as the main mechanism for neuter distinction. Due to this, word-final morphology was not so important, and the mutations in stressed and previous syllables play a more important role. Thus, these would have ['pɨ.lʉ] (strand of hair, countable) and ['pe.lu] (the hair, uncountable), the same applied for adjectives. Likewise, eastern dialects modified their pronoun systems in order to avoid misunderstandings, replacing lu with li (originally dative pronoun) as third person singular accusative pronoun, and using lu for mass neuter. However, this distinction has been gradually lost and is now only retained in some older speakers of Pasiegu dialect. A unique feature of these dialects is the use of feminine agreeing quantifiers with neuter nouns, such as: mucha pelu (much hair). Dropping of the -r from verb infinitives when clitic pronouns are appended. This results in cantar (to sing) +la (it, feminine) = cantala. Preference of simple verbal tenses over complex (compound) tenses, e.g. "ya acabé" (I already finished) rather than "ya he acabáu" (I have already finished).
Threats and recognition
In 2009, Cantabrian was listed as a dialect of the Astur-Leonese language by UNESCO's Red Book of the World's Languages in Danger, which was in turn classified as a definitely endangered language.UNESCO Interactive Atlas of the World's Languages in Danger , where Cantabria is listed as a dialect of the Astur-Leonese language.
Comparative tables
+ Latin etyma Gloss Latin Asturian West. CantabrianMontañés East. CantabrianPasiegu Spanish Features"high"ALTUMaltualtualtualto ALTUM > altu"to fall"CADĔRE cayercayercayercaer Before short e, /d/ → /j/."to say"DĪCEREdicirdicir/icirdicir/dicer/icirdecir Conjugation shift -ERE → -IR"to do"FACERE facer/facere ḥacer hacer hacerWestern /f/→[h].Eastern /f/→∅."iron"FERRUMfierroḥierruyerruhierroWestern .Eastern . "flame"FLAMMAMllapa, llaparadallapa llama llamaPalatalization /FL-/ > (or , due to western yeismo)"fire"FOCUMfueu/fueguḥueuḥuigu/ḥuegu fuegoWestern: FOCUM > . Eastern: FOCUM > (metaphony)."fireplace"LĀRllarllar lar larWestern: Palatalization of ll-, yeísmo."to read"LEGERElleerleerleyer leer Eastern: survival of -g- as -y-."loin"LUMBUM llombulombu/llombulumu/lomu lomoWestern: conservation of -MB- group. Eastern: metaphony. "mother"MATREMmadre/mamadremadrimadreEastern: closing of final -e. "blackbird"MIRULUMñarbatu/mierbumiruellumiruilu mirloWesten: palatalization of -l-. Eastern: metaphony."to show"MOSTRAREamostraramostrar mostrarmostrarWestern: prothesis."knot"*NODUSñuedu/ñuduñuduñudunudoPalatalization of Latin N- "ours"NOSTRUMnuestrunuestrumuistru nuestroEastern: metaphony and confusion between Latin pronoun nos and 1st person plural ending -mos. "almost"QUASIcuasicuasicasicasi"to bring"TRAHĔREtrayertrayertrayertraerConservation of Latin -h- by -y-. "cough"TUSSEMtustustustos"to see"VIDĒREverveerveyer ver Eastern: before short e, /d/ → /y/.
+ Non-Latin etyma Gloss Asturian West. CantabrianMontañés East. CantabrianPasiegu Spanish Features"photo"fotu/afotuḥotuafutu fotoWestern shows [f] > [h], while Eastern prefers prothesis."dog/dogs"perru/perrosperru/perrospirru/perrus perro/perrosWestern masculine singular -u, plural -os. Eastern masculine singular -u + metaphony, plural -us.
The following notes only apply for the Cantabrian derivatives, but might as well occur in other Astur-Leonese varieties: Many verbs keep the etymological -h- or -d- as an internal -y-. This derivation is most intense in the Pasiegan Dialect.
Latin -MB- group is only retained in the derivatives of a group containing few, but very used, Latin etyma: lumbum (loin), camba (bed), lambere (lick), etc. however, it has not been retained during other more recent word derivations, such as tamién (also), which comes from the -mb- reduction of también a compound of tan (as) and bien (well).
In Pasiegan dialect, all masculine singular nouns, adjectives and some adverbs retain an ancient vowel mutation called Metaphony, thus: lumu (one piece of loin) but lomu (uncountable, loin meat), the same applies for ḥuigu (a fire/campfire) and ḥuegu (fire, uncountable) and muistru and muestru (our, masculine singular and uncountable, respectively).
Most Western Cantabrian Dialects retain the ancient initial F- as an aspiration (IPA [h]), so: FACERE > /haθer/. This feature is still productive for all etyma starting with [f]. An example of this is the Greek root phōs (light) which, through Spanish foto (photo) derives in ḥotu (IPA: [hotu])(photography).
All Eastern Dialects have mostly lost Latin initial F-, and only keep it on certain lexicalized vestiges, such as: ḥumu (IPA: [xumu]). Thus: FACERE > /aθer/.
Prothesis: some words derive from the addition of an extra letter (usually /a/) at the beginning of the word. arradiu, amotu/amutu, afutu.