The Warlord Era was a historical period of the Republic of China that began from 1916 and lasted until the mid-1930s, during which the country was divided and ruled by various military cliques following the death of Yuan Shikai in 1916. Communist revolution broke out in the later part of the warlord period, beginning the Chinese Civil War. The era nominally ended in 1928 at the conclusion of the Northern Expedition with the Northeast Flag Replacement, beginning the "Nanjing decade". However, "residual warlords" continued to exist into the 1930s under de jure Kuomintang rule, and remained until the Communist victory in the Chinese Civil War in 1949.

The warlords and military cliques of the Warlord Era are generally divided into the Northern factions and the Southern factions. The following is a list of cliques within each faction, and the dominant warlords within that clique.

Northern factions The cliques in the North emerged from the fragmentation of the Beiyang Government/Army. Most of them were generals under Yuan Shikai. After the death of Yuan, they separated and formed cliques in their own sphere of influence.

Anhui Clique

The Anhui clique was named so because many of its most influential members were from Anhui, including founder Duan Qirui. It had an affiliated political party, the Anfu club, and a financial wing, the New Communications clique, under Deputy Foreign Minister Cao Rulin.

The clique had close ties to Japan, granting concessions in exchange for funding and military training, and advocated war against the German Empire as part of the First World War, as well as military suppression of the Kuomintang.

The clique was removed from power after the Zhili–Anhui War and slowly faded from prominence. Name Years of dominance Notes Duan Qirui 段祺瑞 1916–1926 Premier: 1913, 1916–18; President: 1924–26: Negotiated the Nishihara Loans with Japan in exchange for Shandong Concession, triggering the May Fourth Movement Xu Shuzheng 徐樹錚 1916–1920 Duan Qirui's right-hand man; led expedition that reincorporated Outer Mongolia and temporarily brought it back under Chinese control Duan Zhigui 段芝貴 Minister of War: 1917–1919; known as the "Adopted Prince" Jin Yunpeng 靳雲鵬 Premier: 1919–1921 Wang Yitang 王揖唐 Chairman of the House of Representatives 1918–1920 Lu Yongxiang 盧永祥 Ruler of Zhejiang and Shanghai, his refusal to hand over Shanghai caused the Second Zhili–Fengtian War Zhang Jingyao 張敬堯 1917–1920 Governor of Hunan noted for his exceptional brutality; assassinated in 1933 after he became involved with the Japanese plot to enthrone Puyi as emperor of Manchukuo Wu Guangxin 吳光新 1917–1920 Governor of HunanEdward A. Mccord, The Power of the Gun, The Emergence of Modern Chinese Warlordism, University of California Press, Berkeley · Los Angeles · Oxford © 1993 The Regents of the University of California Ni Sichong 倪嗣衝 former supporter of Yuan Shikai's Empire; eliminated in the Zhili–Anhui War Qu Tongfeng保定士官学校第三任校长--曲同丰 曲同豊 Chen Shufan 陳樹藩 1916–1921 Zheng Shiqi 鄭士琦 1923–1925 Military governor of Shandong (1923–25) and Anhui (1925).Rulers Index Z Zhang Huaizhi 張懷芝 1912–1924 Viceroy of Shandong. Former supporter of Yuan Shikai's Empire; eliminated in the Second Zhili–Fengtian War Wang Yongquan 王永泉 1918–1924 Military Governor of Fujian Province.

Zhili Clique

Zhili was the name for the area of what is now Beijing, Tianjin and Hebei.

The Zhili clique was formed by officers disgruntled with the Anhui clique and rallied around Feng Guozhang. It was aligned to Western powers.

The clique took power after the Zhili–Anhui War but lost after the Second Zhili–Fengtian War. It was largely wiped out during the Northern Expedition. Name Years of dominance Notes Feng Guozhang 馮國璋 1916–1919 Served as President 1917–1918. Died in 1919 and was succeeded by Cao Kun Cao Kun 曹錕 1919–1924 Bribed his way to the presidency and served from 1923 to 1924; arrested and imprisoned during the Beijing Coup by Feng Yuxiang Wu Peifu 吳佩孚 1919–1927 Military commander and strategist of the Zhili clique credited with the victories that pushed Zhili to power but ultimately failed hold onto power in the Second Zhili–Fengtian War. Known as the "Jade Marshal". Sun Chuanfang 孫傳芳 1919–1927 Controlled most of the Lower Yangtze but defeated in the Northern Expedition Lu Jianzhang 陸建章 supporter of Yuan Shikai's Empire, killed by Fengtian clique in 1918 Li Chun 李純 Wang Zhanyuan 王占元 Hubei warlord Chen Guangyuan 陳光遠 Wang Chengbin 王承斌 Ethnic Manchu Peng Shoushen 彭壽莘–1924 Kou Yingjie 寇英傑–1927 Qi Xieyuan 齊燮元 1920–1924Inspector-general of Jiangsu, Jiangxi and Anhui Provinces. Later Japanese puppet, executed after the war.

Fengtian clique

Fengtian is the former name of Liaoning province, and was the political center of Manchuria.

The Fengtian clique controlled most of Manchuria up to the Shanhai Pass and had a close relationship with Japan. Its civilian branch was the Communications Clique, under Premier Liang Shiyi.

It took power in Beijing after the Second Zhili–Fengtian War but could not stop the Kuomintang during the Northern Expedition, and was driven from Manchuria after the Mukden Incident and merged with the Kuomintang. Name Years of dominance Notes Zhang Zuolin 張作霖 1916–1928 Leader of the Fengtian Army, ruler of Northeast China; Assassinated by a Japanese military officer for his failure to halt the expansion of the Kuomintang. Known as the "Old Marshal", father of Zhang Xueliang. Zhang Xueliang 張學良 1928–1937 Son and successor to Zhang Zuolin, he eventually reconciled the Fengtian clique with the Kuomintang. Known as the "Young Marshal". Guo Songling 郭松齡 1920–1925 General in the Fengtian Army. Rebelled during the Anti-Fengtian War but was defeated and killed in action Zhang Zongchang 張宗昌 1925–1928 Ruler of the Shandong province. Known for a colorful personality, called the "Dogmeat General". Zhang Haipeng 張海鵬 Zhang Jinghui 張景惠 Afterwards Prime Minister of Manchukuo. Called the "Tofu Prime Minister" due to his pro-Japanese views. Li Jinglin 李景林 Known as Li Fangchen and "China's First Sword" Tang Yulin 湯玉麟 Wan Fulin 萬福麟 Wu Junsheng 吳俊陞 Commander of Fengtian Cavalry Yang Yuting 楊宇霆 Executed by Zhang Xueliang for his part in the assassination of Zhang Zuolin Liu Zhennian 劉珍年 "King of East Shandong"; defected to KMT during the Northern Expedition, defeated by Han Fuju Xu Lanzhou 許蘭洲 1895–1928 originally a Qing general, later served under Zhang Zuolin

Shanxi/Jin Clique

Formed in the Xinhai Revolution, the Shanxi clique was limited to Shanxi province only.

Jin was the traditional name of Shanxi province. Therefore, the clique is often called the Jin clique as well.

Although affiliated with the Anhui clique, Yan Xishan, leader of the Shanxi Clique, remained neutral until the Northern Expedition, during which he sided with the Kuomintang. Name Years of dominance Notes Yan Xishan 閻錫山 1911–1949 Military ruler of Shanxi; Joined the Kuomintang but later rebelled against Chiang Kai-shek in the Central Plains War. Defeated by the Communists in 1949, withdrew to Taiwan. Known as the "Model Governor". Fu Zuoyi 傅作義 1927–1949 Ruler of Suiyuan; defected to the Communists in 1949 Shang Zhen 商震

Guominjun

Also known as the Northwestern Army, it was formed from disgruntled Zhili clique officers during the Second Zhili–Fengtian War, through the Beijing Coup.

Although originally sympathetic to the Kuomintang, it rebelled in the 1930 Central Plains War and was defeated. It was aligned to the Soviet Union. Name Years of dominance Notes Feng Yuxiang 馮玉祥 1924–1934 Leader of the Northwest, initially Zhili warlord Yang Hucheng 楊虎城 1918–1936 Shaanxi ruler from 1926, helped kidnap Chiang Kai-shek in the Xi'an Incident.王禹廷：《細說西安事變》，台北：傳記文學出版社，1989年10月1日 Sun Yue 孫岳 1924–1928 Liu Zhenhua 劉鎮華 Originally Anhui clique, then defected to the Zhili clique, then Guominjun and finally to the KMT. Hu Jingyi 胡景翼 1924–1925 Military governor of Henan Deng Baoshan 鄧寶珊 Subordinate of Hu Jingyi, later Communist governor of Gansu, killed in the Cultural Revolution. Yue Weijun 岳維峻 Bie Tingfang 別廷芳 Henan warlord; switched to KMT Sun Dianying 孫殿英 Henan bandit; allied with Feng Yuxiang, Zhang Zongchang Song Zheyuan 宋哲元 1927–1930 Defected to KMT in 1930, warlord of Chahar Province and Rehe Province Jing Yuexiu 井岳秀 1913–1936 Northern Shaanxi warlord, cooperated with various other cliques.刘国铭，《民国职官年表·人名录》校读，近代中国研究，2009年08月15日 Han Fuju 韓復榘 1930–1938 Chairman of the Shandong Province; Defected to KMT in 1930. arrested and shot after abandoning his province when the Second Sino-Japanese War started. Shi Yousan 石友三 1912–1940 Chairman of Anhui province, 1929. Known as the "Defector General" for his repeated defections between various warlords, KMT factions, communists and Japan.D. Lary (2006): "Treachery, Disgrace and Death: Han Fuju and China's Resistance to Japan", War in History, 13 (1) 65-90 (footnote 8 on p. 70) Fan Zhongxiu 樊鍾秀 1911–1931 served many different factions successively, killed in the Central Plains War Ji Hongchang 吉鴻昌 Later joined the Communist Party, executed by the KMT. Zhang Zhijiang 張之江

Ma clique

The "Three Mas of the Northwest" or "Xibei San Ma" originated in the Kansu Braves militia formed during the Dungan revolt. All Ma Clique Generals were Hui people Muslim Kuomintang members. The Ma Cliques Fought against the Guominjun during the Central Plains War and attempted to destroy the Xinjiang clique during the Kumul Rebellion but were defeated by Soviet Red Army intervention.

Name Years of dominance Notes Ma Anliang 馬安良 1912–1918 Ruler of the Gansu province, Outranked all the other Ma Clique generals. Ma Fuxiang 馬福祥 1912–1928 De facto leader after Ma Anliang; Ruler of Ningxia and Suiyuan Ma Hongbin 馬鴻賓 1921–1928 brief acting Chairman of Gansu Province and Ningxia Province Ma Hongkui 馬鴻逵 1923–1949 Army commander then ruler of Ningxia Province from 1932 Ma Zhongying 馬仲英 1929–1934 Chief of the 36th Division and ruler of Gansu and Southern Xinjiang (Tunganistan) Ma Hushan 馬虎山 1934–1950 Chief of the 36th Division and ruler of Southern Xinjiang (Tunganistan) Ma Zhancang 馬占倉 served under Ma Zhongying Zhang Peiyuan 張培元 1929–1934 Han Chinese Commander of Ili, allied with the Ma Clique against the Xinjiang Clique Ma Qi 馬麒 1915–1931 Ninghai Army ruler of Qinghai province, influential in Gansu province Ma Lin 馬麟 1931–1938 Ninghai Army ruler of Qinghai province Ma Bufang 馬步芳 1938–1945 Ninghai Army ruler of Qinghai province Ma Buqing 馬步青 Ninghai Army

Xinjiang clique

Under Yang Zengxin, the clique organized the defence against the Soviet encroachment, but later closely affiliated with the Soviet Union. Name Years of dominance Notes Yang Zengxin 楊增新 1912–1928 Ruler of the Xinjiang province from the Qing era. Always recognized whichever government was dominant. Ma Fuxing 馬福興 1912–1924 Titai of Kashgar, Military Commander of Southern Xinjiang Ma Shaowu 馬紹武 1924–1937 Executed Ma Fuxing on Yang Zengxin's orders, then replaced him as Tao-yin of Kashgar, Military Commander of Southern Xinjiang Jin Shuren 金樹仁 1928–1934 Ruler of the Xinjiang province. Sheng Shicai 盛世才 1933–1944 Ruler of the Xinjiang province and Soviet puppet

Manchu Restorationists

In July 1917 a clique of generals and officials were able to conquer and occupy Beijing, temporarily restoring the deposed child emperor Puyi for 12 days. Name Years of dominance Notes Zhang Xun 張勳 July 1–12, 1917 Leader of the Manchu restoration, installed himself as Prime Minister of the Imperial Cabinet. Known as the "Queue General". Kang Youwei 康有為 July 1–12, 1917 Helped Zhang Xun in the restoration Jiang Chaozong 江朝宗 July 1–12, 1917

Southern factions The military cliques in the South are generally regional revolutionary leaders that took over after the fall of Qing dynasty in Xinhai Revolution.

Kuomintang