Abdullahi ɗan Fodio (; ca. 1766–1828), was a prominent Islamic scholar, jurist, poet, grammarian, and theologian, and the first Amir of Gwandu (r. 1812–1828) and first Wazirin Sokoto (Grand Vizier of Sokoto). His brother, Usman dan Fodio (1754–1817) was the founder of the Sokoto Caliphate. Usman, being more of a scholar than politician, delegated the practical regency of the western part of his empire to Abdullahi and the eastern part to his son Muhammed Bello, who later became the Sultan of Sokoto after his father.
Early life Abdullahi ɗan Fodio was born in the small village of Maganimi in 1766. His father, Muhammad bin Uthman, was a local Islamic teacher (mallam), scribe, and religious leader of his community. Muhammad's expertise in Islamic jurispudence earned him the Fulani nickname Fodiye (Fodio in Hausa), derived from the Arabic Faqīh (jurist). His mother Hauwa bint Muhammad came from a family locally renowned for their learning. Hauwa's family claimed descent from the Islamic Prophet Muhammed through Maulay Idris I of Morocco.
Unlike his brother and his other relatives, who were of "sparse physique" and lighter-skinned, Abdullahi is traditionally described as being "tall, fat and black."
Education Abdullahi's earliest known teacher was his mother, Hauwa, who taught him the basics of Islam. His father later took over as his primary teacher. It is likely that Abdullahi's formal study of Islam began around the age of 5, and by the time he reached 13, he had reportedly already memorised the Qur'an.
Subsequently, his older brother Usman assumed the role of his teacher, imparting more advanced subjects in Islam, such as Tauhid, Sufism and Mantiq. Usman further introduced him to Islamic poetry, including works like the Mu'allaqat poems, which had a significant influence on Abdullahi's later writings. Usman also focused on teaching Sharia or Islamic law, with a particular emphasis on the Maliki school. Together, they studied the school's pivotal texts like the Mukhtasar al-Akhdari by al-Akhdari, and Al-Risalah. Abdullahi learnt Arabic grammar from works of Moroccan linguist Ibn Ājurrūm, and other works like Qatr al-nada and Shudhur al-dhahab both authored by Egyptian grammarian Ibn Hisham. Usman also introduced Abdullahi to elementary arithmetic.
Abdullahi belonged to the Torodbe Fulani clan, who are known for their Islamic scholarship in West Africa. Some of his other notable teachers included his uncles Muhammad ibn Raji and Abdullah ibn Muhammad Thanbu, as well as other scholars such as Muhammad al-Firabri, Muhammad al-Buttugha, Mahmud Bazanfare, Muhammad al-Maghuri, and the influential but controversial al-Hajj Jibril ibn Umar of Agades. He himself later became a teacher and some of his students included his nephew, Muhammad Bello, al-Mustafa b. Muhammad (the father of Abd al-Qadir dan Tafa), and Modibbo Raji, who played a significant role in shaping the Islamic scholarly tradition of Adamawa.
Preaching tours By his early teens, Abdullahi had begun accompanying his brother Usman on preaching tours across Hausaland. Usman's sermons primarily targeted religious practices that he believed deviated from the pure teachings of Islam. Usman delivered his sermons in both Hausa and Fulfulde, sometimes incorporating poetry as a means of communication. Abdullahi's first preaching experience took place in hometown of Degel. His first tour outside of Gobir was to the nearby kingdom of Kebbi, again accompanying his brother. These tours increased their reputation in the region, drawing visitors to Degel who were eager to hear their sermons.
Usman's sermons often attracted both men and women, which led to rumours that his gatherings encouraged promiscuous mingling. During one of their tours in 1786, at a settlement called Daura just east of Bakura, a respected scholar from Bornu named al-Mustafa Gwani wrote a "rather sharp retort" accusing them of permitting such conduct. Although the criticism was mainly directed at Usman, he instructed Abdullahi, then 20 years old, to compose a reply. In it, Abdullahi agreed that the mixing of men and women at the Shehu's lectures was "an evil", but he argued that it was a lesser evil than leaving women uneducated. In his words:The evil of leaving women in ignorance, not knowing what is incumbent upon them, nay, not knowing Islam at all, is greater than the evil of their mixing with men, for the first evil relates back to religion, which is faith, Islam and good works, and the second evil relates back to genealogy.
Jihad
Background Initially focused on reforming the practices of Muslims in line with sunni orthodoxy, Usman's preaching soon extended to the masses, drawing large gatherings at Degel. Although he shunned the courts of kings, his reform movement's implicit criticism of the established political order alarmed the Gobir king (Sarkin Gobir) Bawa jan Gwarzo, who viewed it as a developing rebellion.
In 1788-89, Bawa summoned Usman to join in the Id al-Kabir prayer in Magami, reportedly intending to harm the Shehu in order to disrupt the reformist movement. However, according to Sokoto tradition, he was swayed on that day after witnessing a mass desertion of scholars to join Usman, raising the total number of his followers to over a thousand. Since then, Sarkin Gobir Bawa did not interfere with the movement and granted Usman several concessions, including freedom to preach, fair treatment for Muslims and prisoners, and reforms to taxation.
However, Bawa's successors were more hostile to the movement, which was proving too difficult to curb. Sarkin Gobir Nafata, who ascended after Yakubu's death in 1794-95, revoked the concesions and imposed restrictive laws on the movement. In response, Usman's followers began to take a more militant stance to ensure the movement's survival. The tension worsened under Nafata's successor Yunfa, who came to power in 1801.
Yunfa had been a student of Usman and was believed that the Shehu had aided him in ascending the throne by exerting his influence. Initially, While early relations were cordial, Usman's growing influence began to rival Yunfa's own. Some of Usman's followers, including Abdullahi, distrusted Yunfa and favoured launching a jihad against Gobir. Among them was Abd al-Salam, a Hausa scholar who would later rebel against the Sokoto Caliphate. Wanted for arrest since Nafata's reign, Abd al-Salam and his disciples had fled to Gimbana in Kebbi. When Yunfa became ruler, he ordered Usman to recall Abd al-Salam to Gobir. Usman refused, further worsening their relationship.
Hijra Yunfa sent a force to Gimbana to capture Abd al-Salam, who escaped to a nearby Fulani fortress. Yunfa's army nevertheless took several Muslim prisoners. On their return to their capital at Alkalawa, they were confronted by Usman's followers, who demanded the release of the prisoners, which was granted. When Usman learned that Abdullahi had organised this intervention without his knowledge or consent, he was furious. Yunfa responded by ordering Usman and his family to leave Gobir. Usman refused, choosing to remain in Degel, but many of his followers prepared to leave and perform the hijra, thereby declaring jihad on Gobir.
On 21 February 1804, the community left Degel, moving west to Gudu, which at the time lay in "an almost empty widerness of sand, scrub and stunted trees." Now settled, the community decided to choose a leader. Although Usman was the obvious choice, he was reluctant to accept the role. Several other candidates were considered, including Abdullahi, who was rejected as he "favoured some over others". None of the candidates were fully acceptable. In the end, Usman eventually agreed to be appointed Amīr al-muʾminīn (Commander of the faithful). Abdullahi was the first to give the salute of homage (bay'a) followed by Usman's son Muhammad Bello.
Battle of Tabkin Kwotto
The first major battle of the jihad was Battle of Tabkin Kwotto of 1804. Prior to this battle, there were several skirmishes and raids between the jihadists and the Gobirawa in the surrounding outskirts and valleys. In June 1804, Yunfa raised an army and marched on Gudu, sacking the settlement. However, Abdullahi, as Usman's Waziri, commanded the jihadist army and evacuated the camp before the attack after deserters from Yunfa's army warned of the impending ambush. The Gobir army captured the few who remained. Abdullahi shadowed the Gobirawa, attempting to lure them into battle on ground of his own choosing, but they repeatedly avoided direct engagement.
In an attempt to force a battle and cut off the jihadists' line of retreat, Yunfa led his army west of their position and camped near Lake Kwotto (Tabkin Kwotto), about twenty miles from Gudu. The army camped on hilly ground with a thicket to their front, hoping it would keep the jihadist army at a distance. Abdullahi correctly guessed this plan, and decided to meet them at the lake. He led the army on a night march to Gurdam, a village near Lake Kwotto.
On the morning of 21 June, after performing the dawn prayer, the jihadist army formed its battle lines. Yunfa's forces were caught by surprise when they found the jihadist army fully prepared at the sides of the lake, which gave Abdullahi's smaller and ill-equipped army a psychological advantage. Initially the battle went badly for the jihadists, who were surrounded by the large Gobir cavalry and forced into a tight square formation. However, the square enabled the jihadist archers to maximise the long-range and rapid-fire ability of their weapons. The battle soon developed into a bloody hand-to-hand struggle. After suffering heavy losses, the Gobirawa broke ranks and fled into the thickets.
First siege of Alkalawa and Battle of Tsuntsua Following their victory at Tabkin Kwotto, the jihadists captured several Gobir villages and towns. However, hostility from the local population and a shortage of supplies forced them to leave Gobir. They moved further south into Zamfara, which had been weakened and fractured after half a century of war with Gobir. The Zamfarawa welcomed the jihadists, especially after their recent successes against Gobir.
Confident after their gains, the jihadists launched another major attack on Gobir at the end of the 1804 rainy season. Under Abdullahi's command and allied with the Tuaregs of Adar and Aïr, they advanced on the fortified Gobir capital of Alkalawa in November 1804. After subduing surrounding towns and villages, they began the siege. According to Bello, the jihadists fought "a hotly contested battle", but were unable to press follow through. The allied Tuaregs eventually abandoned the campaign and raided Fulani settlements on their return home.
In response, Usman, who had not joined the campaign up to that point, swiftly set out with reinforcements. While Bello remained to continue the siege, Abdullahi split off to also confront the Tuareg raiders. With the jihadist forces now dispersed, the Gobirawa saw an opportunity to attack. The ensuing battle took place at Tsuntsua, a village about two miles from Alkalawa. Gobir won a decisive victory, killing more than 2,000. With Usman's late reinforcements, the jihadists were able to push the Gobirawa back to their capital before retreating themselves. The defeat at Tsuntsua was particularly devastating as many famous scholars were among the dead, including Abdullahi's cousin, Imam Muhammad Sambo, the chief judge. More than 200 of those killed were said to have memorised the Qur'an.
Kebbi expedition