An electric vehicle (EV) is a vehicle propelled mostly by electric power. EVs encompass electric cars and other electric road vehicles (buses, trucks and personal transporters) as well as other types of land vehicles, such as electric rail vehicles (trains, trams and monorails). It also includes electric watercraft (boats and submersibles), aircraft (fixed-wing and multirotors), and spacecraft.
EVs originated in the late 19th century. Electricity was among the preferred methods for powering early motor vehicles because it was quieter, provided comfort, and ease of operation. However, its limited range hindered mass adoption throughout the 20th century. Internal combustion engines were the dominant propulsion mechanisms for cars and trucks for about 100 years, although electricity-powered locomotion became commonplace in other vehicle types, such as overhead line-powered mass transit vehicles, as well as special purpose vehicles such as mobility scooters.
Since the late 20th century, technological advances in lithium batteries—which offer superior energy density and current output versus lead-acid batteries—have revived public interest as zero-emission vehicle options. Manufacturers mostly switched to hybrids that use internal combustion engines like conventional vehicles, but add electric motors as a supplement, powered by electricity produced internally by motor-generators and recovered from regenerative braking. Plug-in hybrid electric vehicles, which can be recharged from an electric grid and use electric motors as the primary propulsion rather than as a supplement to combustion engines, did not see any mass production until the late 2000s, and battery electric cars did not become practical options for the consumer market until the 2010s. Although spacecraft have been propelled by electricity since the 1960s, non-rocket spacelaunch from Earth remains science fiction.
Technological progress in electric vehicle batteries, electric traction motors and automotive electronics has made electric cars more feasible and, in some cases, more cost-efficient than conventional ICE vehicles during the 21st century, with market penetration in some countries like China reaching nearly half of all new vehicles sold as of September 2025. As a means of reducing tailpipe emissions of greenhouse gases and other air pollutants, and to reduce the dependency on fossil fuels, government incentives are also available in many areas to promote the adoption of electric vehicles. , the electric vehicle industry in China produces more than the rest of the world combined.
History
1990-2010s In January 1990 General Motors president introduced its EV concept two-seater, the "Impact", at the Los Angeles Auto Show. That September, the California Air Resources Board mandated major-automaker sales of EVs, in phases starting in 1998. From 1996 to 1998 GM produced 1,117 EV1s, 800 of which were made available through three-year leases.
Chrysler, Ford, GM, Honda, and Toyota also produced limited numbers of EVs for California drivers during this period. In 2003, upon the expiration of GM's EV1 leases, GM discontinued them. The discontinuation has variously been attributed to: the auto industry's successful federal court challenge to California's zero-emissions vehicle mandate, a federal regulation requiring GM to produce and maintain spare parts for the few thousand EV1s and the success of the oil and auto industries' media campaign to reduce public acceptance of EVs.
A movie made on the subject in 2005–2006 was titled Who Killed the Electric Car? and released theatrically by Sony Pictures Classics in 2006. The film explores the roles of automobile manufacturers, oil industry, the U.S. government, batteries, hydrogen vehicles, and the general public, and each of their roles in limiting the deployment and adoption of this technology.
Ford released a number of their Ford Ecostar delivery vans into the market. Honda, Nissan and Toyota also repossessed and crushed most of their EVs, which, like the GM EV1s, had been available only by closed-end lease. After public protests, Toyota sold 200 of its RAV4 EVs; they later sold at over their original forty-thousand-dollar price. Later, BMW of Canada sold off a number of Mini EVs when their Canadian testing ended.
The production of the Citroën Berlingo Electrique stopped in September 2005. Zenn started production in 2006 but ended by 2009.
During the late 20th and early 21st century, the environmental impact of the petroleum-based transportation infrastructure, along with the fear of peak oil, led to renewed interest in electric transportation infrastructure. By the 21st century an energy transition to electrify as many things as possible, not just vehicles, rather than burning stuff became to be seen as very important for human health and the environment. EVs differ from fossil fuel-powered vehicles in that the electricity they consume can be generated from a wide range of sources, including fossil fuels, nuclear power, and renewables such as solar power and wind power, or any combination of those. Recent advancements in battery technology and charging infrastructure have addressed many of the earlier barriers to EV adoption, making electric vehicles a more viable option for a wider range of consumers. The carbon footprint and other emissions of electric vehicles vary depending on the fuel and technology used for electricity generation. The electricity may be stored in the vehicle using a battery, flywheel, or supercapacitors. Vehicles using internal combustion engines usually only derive their energy from a single or a few sources, usually non-renewable fossil fuels. A key advantage of electric vehicles is regenerative braking, which recovers kinetic energy, typically lost during friction braking as heat, as electricity restored to the on-board battery.
2020s Technological progress in electric vehicle batteries, electric traction motors and automotive electronics (particularly electronic control units) has made electric cars more feasible and, in some cases, more cost-efficient than conventional ICE vehicles by the 2020s.
Although over 20% of new cars sold in 2024 were electric, only 2% of trucks were. As a means of reducing tailpipe emissions of greenhouse gases and other air pollutants, and to reduce the dependency on fossil fuels, government incentives are available in many areas to promote the adoption of electric vehicles.
By 2024 China was the world's leading EV producer, accounting for more than 70% of global production and 67% of global sales of electric vehicles. Nearly half of all new vehicles sold in China as of September 2025 were EVs. , the electric vehicle industry in China produces more than the rest of the world combined.
Electricity sources
EVs are much more efficient than internal combustion engines and have few direct emissions. At the same time, they do rely on electrical energy that is generally provided by a combination of non-fossil fuel plants and fossil fuel plants.
There are many ways to generate electricity, of varying costs, efficiency and ecological desirability. EVs can be made less polluting overall by modifying the source of electricity. In some areas, individuals can ask utilities to provide their electricity from renewable energy. Therefore, it gives the greatest degree of energy resilience.
Connection to generator plants Direct connection to electric grids as is common among electric trains, trams, trolleybuses, and trolleytrucks (see also: overhead lines, third rail and conduit current collection) Online electric vehicle collects power from electric power strips buried under the road surface through electromagnetic induction
Onboard generators and hybrid EVs
Generated on-board using a diesel engine: diesel–electric locomotive and diesel–electric multiple unit (DEMU) Generated on-board using a fuel cell: fuel cell vehicle Generated on-board using nuclear power: nuclear submarines and aircraft carriers Renewable sources such as solar power: solar vehicle
It is also possible to have hybrid EVs that derive electricity from multiple sources, such as:
On-board rechargeable electricity storage system (RESS) and a direct continuous connection to land-based generation plants for purposes of on-highway recharging with unrestricted highway range On-board rechargeable electricity storage system and a fueled propulsion power source (internal combustion engine): plug-in hybrid
For especially large EVs, such as submarines, the chemical energy of the diesel–electric can be replaced by a nuclear reactor. The nuclear reactor usually provides heat, which drives a steam turbine, which drives a generator, which is then fed to the propulsion. See Nuclear marine propulsion.
A few experimental vehicles, such as some cars and a handful of aircraft use solar panels for electricity.
Onboard storage These systems are powered from an external generator plant (nearly always when stationary), and then disconnected before motion occurs, and the electricity is stored in the vehicle until needed.
Full Electric Vehicles (FEV). Power storage methods include: Chemical energy stored on the vehicle in on-board batteries: Battery electric vehicle (BEV) typically with a lithium-ion battery Kinetic energy storage: flywheels Static energy stored on the vehicle in on-board electric double-layer capacitors
Batteries, electric double-layer capacitors and flywheel energy storage are forms of rechargeable on-board electricity storage systems. By avoiding an intermediate mechanical step, the energy conversion efficiency can be improved compared to hybrids by avoiding unnecessary energy conversions. Furthermore, electro-chemical batteries conversions are reversible, allowing electrical energy to be stored in chemical form.
Components An electric vehicle (EV) is a vehicle propelled mostly by electric power. The type of battery, the type of traction motor and the motor controller design vary according to the size, power, and proposed application, which can be as small as a motorized shopping cart or wheelchair, through pedelecs, electric motorcycles and scooters, neighborhood electric vehicles, industrial fork-lift trucks, and including many hybrid vehicles.
Battery
An electric-vehicle battery (EVB) in addition to the traction battery specialty systems used for industrial (or recreational) vehicles, is a battery used to power the propulsion system of a battery electric vehicle (BEVs). These batteries are usually a secondary (rechargeable) battery, and are typically lithium-ion batteries.
Traction batteries, specifically designed with a high ampere-hour capacity, are used in forklifts, electric golf carts, riding floor scrubbers, electric motorcycles, electric cars, trucks, vans, and other electric vehicles.
Most battery-electric vehicles also include a separate low-voltage auxiliary battery, commonly a 12-volt system, which powers accessories and control electronics. This auxiliary battery is typically recharged from the high-voltage traction battery through a DC/DC converter.
Failures in the auxiliary-battery charging system can immobilize a vehicle even when the traction battery remains charged. In 2024, Hyundai and Kia recalls cited failures of the Integrated Charging Control Unit (ICCU) that could stop charging the 12-volt battery and lead to a loss of drive power.
Lithium-ion battery