Printed electronics is a set of printing methods used to create electrical devices on various substrates. Printing typically uses common printing equipment suitable for defining patterns on material, such as screen printing, flexography, gravure, offset lithography, and inkjet. By electronic-industry standards, these are low-cost processes. Electrically functional electronic or optical inks are deposited on the substrate, creating active or passive devices, such as thin-film transistors, capacitors, coils, and resistors. Some researchers expect printed electronics to facilitate widespread, very low-cost, low-performance electronics for applications such as flexible displays, smart labels, decorative and animated posters, and active clothing that do not require high performance.Coatanéa, E., Kantola, V., Kulovesi, J., Lahti, L., Lin, R., & Zavodchikova, M. (2009). Printed Electronics, Now and Future. In Neuvo, Y., & Ylönen, S. (eds.), Bit Bang – Rays to the Future. Helsinki University of Technology (TKK), MIDE, Helsinki University Print, Helsinki, Finland, 63-102. . http://lib.tkk.fi/Reports/2009/isbn9789522480781.pdf - "Moreover, PE technology could provide a number of enabling factors like flexibility and robustness, allowing incorporation of electronics functions into objects that do not yet contain any active electronic components, e.g. toy applications, printed advertising material or electronic labels [...]."
The term printed electronics is often related to organic electronics or plastic electronics, in which one or more inks are composed of carbon-based compounds. These other terms refer to the ink material, which can be deposited by solution-based, vacuum-based, or other processes. Printed electronics, in contrast, specifies the process, and, subject to the specific requirements of the printing process selected, can utilize any solution-based material. This includes organic semiconductors, inorganic semiconductors, metallic conductors, nanoparticles, and nanotubes. The solution usually consist of filler materials dispersed in a suitable solvent. The most commonly used solvents include ethanol, xylene, Dimethylformamide (DMF), Dimethyl sulfoxide (DMSO), toluene and water, whereas, the most common conductive fillers include silver nanoparticles, silver flakes, carbon black, graphene, carbon nanotubes, conductive polymers (such as polyaniline and polypyrrole), and metal powders (such as copper or nickel). Considering the environmental impacts of the organic solvents, researchers are now focused on developing printable inks using water.
For the preparation of printed electronics nearly all industrial printing methods are employed. Similar to conventional printing, printed electronics applies ink layers one atop another. So the coherent development of printing methods and ink materials are the field's essential tasks.
The most important benefit of printing is low-cost volume fabrication. The lower cost enables use in more applications. An example is RFID-systems, which enable contactless identification in trade and transport. In some domains, such as light-emitting diodes printing does not impact performance. Printing on flexible substrates allows electronics to be placed on curved surfaces, for example: printing solar cells on vehicle roofs. More typically, conventional semiconductors justify their much higher costs by providing much higher performance.
Resolution, registration, thickness, holes, materials
The maximum required resolution of structures in conventional printing is determined by the human eye. Feature sizes smaller than approximately 20 μm cannot be distinguished by the human eye and consequently exceed the capabilities of conventional printing processes.A. Blayo and B. Pineaux, Joint sOC-EUSAI Conference, Grenoble, 2005. In contrast, higher resolution and smaller structures are necessary in most electronics printing, because they directly affect circuit density and functionality (especially transistors). A similar requirement holds for the precision with which layers are printed on top of each other (layer to layer registration).
Control of thickness, holes, and material compatibility (wetting, adhesion, solubility) are essential, but matter in conventional printing only if the eye can detect them. Conversely, the visual impression is irrelevant for printed electronics.U. Fügmann et al., mstNews 2 (2006) 13.
Printing technologies The attraction of printing technology for the fabrication of electronics mainly results from the possibility of preparing stacks of micro-structured layers (and thereby thin-film devices) in a much simpler and cost-effective way compared to conventional electronics.J. R. Sheats, Journal of Materials Research 2004; 19 1974. Also, the ability to implement new or improved functionalities (e.g. mechanical flexibility) plays a role. The selection of the printing method used is determined by requirements concerning printed layers, by the properties of printed materials as well as economic and technical considerations of the final printed products.
Printing technologies divide between sheet-based and roll-to-roll-based approaches. Sheet-based inkjet and screen printing are best for low-volume, high-precision work. Gravure, offset and flexographic printing are more common for high-volume production, such as solar cells, reaching 10,000 square meters per hour (m2/h). While offset and flexographic printing are mainly used for inorganicJ. Siden et al., Polytronic Conference, Wroclaw, 2005. and organic conductors (the latter also for dielectrics), gravure printing is especially suitable for quality-sensitive layers like organic semiconductors and semiconductor/dielectric-interfaces in transistors, due to high layer quality. If high resolution is needed, gravure is also suitable for inorganicS. Leppavuori et al., Sensors and Actuators 41-42 (1994) 593. and organic conductors. Organic field-effect transistors and integrated circuits can be prepared completely by means of mass-printing methods.
Inkjet printing Inkjets are flexible and versatile, and can be set up with relatively low effort. However, inkjets offer lower throughput of around 100 m2/h and lower resolution (ca. 50 μm). It is well suited for low-viscosity, soluble materials like organic semiconductors. With high-viscosity materials, like organic dielectrics, and dispersed particles, like inorganic metal inks, difficulties due to nozzle clogging occur. Because ink is deposited via droplets, thickness and dispersion homogeneity is reduced. Using many nozzles simultaneously and pre-structuring the substrate allows improvements in productivity and resolution, respectively. However, in the latter case non-printing methods must be employed for the actual patterning step. Inkjet printing is preferable for organic semiconductors in organic field-effect transistors (OFETs) and organic light-emitting diodes (OLEDs), but also OFETs completely prepared by this method have been demonstrated. FrontplanesS. Holdcroft, Advanced Materials 2001; 13 1753. and backplanes of OLED-displays, integrated circuits, organic photovoltaic cells (OPVCs)V.G. Shah and D.B. Wallace, IMAPS Conference, Long Beach, 2004. and other devices can be prepared with inkjets.
Screen printing Screen printing is appropriate for fabricating electrics and electronics due to its ability to produce patterned, thick layers from paste-like materials. This method can produce conducting lines from inorganic materials (e.g. for circuit boards and antennas), but also insulating and passivating layers, whereby layer thickness is more important than high resolution. Its 50 m2/h throughput and 100 μm resolution are similar to inkjets. This versatile and comparatively simple method is used mainly for conductive and dielectric layers, but also organic semiconductors, e.g. for OPVCs, and even complete OFETs can be printed.
Aerosol jet printing Aerosol Jet Printing (also known as Maskless Mesoscale Materials Deposition or M3D)M. Renn, US Patent number 7,485,345 B2. Page 3. is another material deposition technology for printed electronics. The Aerosol Jet process begins with atomization of an ink, via ultrasonic or pneumatic means, producing droplets on the order of one to two micrometers in diameter. The droplets then flow through a virtual impactor which deflects the droplets having lower momentum away from the stream. This step helps maintaining a tight droplet size distribution. The droplets are entrained in a gas stream and delivered to the print head. Here, an annular flow of clean gas is introduced around the aerosol stream to focus the droplets into a tightly collimated beam of material. The combined gas streams exit the print head through a converging nozzle that compresses the aerosol stream to a diameter as small as 10 μm. The jet of droplets exits the print head at high velocity (~50 meters/second) and impinges upon the substrate.
Electrical interconnects, passive and active componentsJ.H. Cho et al, Nature Materials, 19 October 2008. are formed by moving the print head, equipped with a mechanical stop/start shutter, relative to the substrate. The resulting patterns can have features ranging from 10 μm wide, with layer thicknesses from tens of nanometers to >10 μm.B. Kahn, Organic and Printed Electronics, Volume 1, Issue 2 (2007). A wide nozzle print head enables efficient patterning of millimeter size electronic features and surface coating applications. All printing occurs without the use of vacuum or pressure chambers. The high exit velocity of the jet enables a relatively large separation between the print head and the substrate, typically 2–5 mm. The droplets remain tightly focused over this distance, resulting in the ability to print conformal patterns over three dimensional substrates.
Despite the high velocity, the printing process is gentle; substrate damage does not occur and there is generally minimal splatter or overspray from the droplets.B. H. King et al, Photovoltaic Specialists Conference (PVSC), 2009 34th IEEE. Once patterning is complete, the printed ink typically requires post treatment to attain final electrical and mechanical properties. Post-treatment is driven more by the specific ink and substrate combination than by the printing process. A wide range of materials has been successfully deposited with the Aerosol Jet process, including diluted thick film pastes, conducting polymer inks, thermosetting polymers such as UV-curable epoxies, and solvent-based polymers like polyurethane and polyimide, and biologic materials.Ingo Grunwald et al, 2010 Biofabrication 2 014106.
Recently, printing paper was proposed to be used as the substrate of the printing. Highly conductive (close to bulk copper) and high-resolution traces can be printed on foldable and available office printing papers, with 80°Celsius curing temperature and 40 minutes of curing time.
Evaporation printing Evaporation printing uses a combination of high precision screen printing with material vaporization to print features to 5 μm. This method uses techniques such as thermal, e-beam, sputter and other traditional production technologies to deposit materials through a high precision shadow mask (or stencil) that is registered to the substrate to better than 1 μm. By layering different mask designs and/or adjusting materials, reliable, cost-effective circuits can be built additively, without the use of photo-lithography.
Other methods