is a historiographical concept that was prominent among medieval thinkers and intellectuals in Europe, but which originated from earlier concepts in antiquity. According to this concept, the notion of decline and fall of an empire is theoretically replaced by a natural succession from one empire to another. Translatio implies that an empire can metahistorically be transferred from hand to hand and place to place, from Troy to Romans and Greeks to Franks (both claiming to be Romans) and further on to Spain, and has therefore survived.Pocock, J.G.A. (2003) Barbarism and Religion, Cambridge University Press | Chapter 7 - The historiography of the translatio imperii (pp. 127–150) DOI: https://doi.org/10.1017/CBO9780511490675.009
In classical antiquity, an authoritative user of this scheme was Virgil, who has been traditionally ranked as one of Rome's greatest poets. In his work Aeneid, which has been considered the national epic of ancient Rome, he linked the Rome in which he lived, reigned by its first emperor Caesar Augustus, with Troy. The discourse of translatio imperii may be traced from the ninth century to the fourteenth, and may be carried on into the sixteenth century or even further. In the Early modern period, the translatio scheme was used by many authors who wished to legitimate their new centre of power and to provide it with prestige. In Renaissance era-Florence, humanists wrote Latin poems fashioning their city as the new Rome, and members of the Medici family as Roman rulers.appropriate citation needed
More generally speaking, this concept views history as a linear succession of transfers of an that invests supreme power in a singular ruler, an "emperor", or sometimes even several emperors (e.g. the Eastern Roman Empire and the Western Holy Roman Empire). The concept is closely linked to , the geographic movement of learning. Both terms are thought to have their origins in the second chapter of the Book of Daniel in the Hebrew Bible ().Carol Ann Newsom and Brennan W. Breed, Daniel: A Commentary, Westminster John Knox Press, 2014, p. 89.
Definitions French historian Jacques Le Goff (1924–2014) did describe the concept as "typical" for the Middle Ages for several reasons:Le Goff, Jacques. La civilisation de l'Occident médieval. Paris. 1964; English translation (1988): Medieval Civilization, – "translatio imperii" is discussed in Part II, Chapter VI, section on "Time, eternity and history". The idea of linearity of time and history was typical for the Middle Ages; The idea typically also neglected simultaneous developments in other parts of the world (of no importance to medieval Europeans); The idea didn't separate "divine" history from the history of "worldly power": medieval Europeans considered divine (supernatural) and material things as part of the same continuum, which was their reality. Also the causality of one reign necessarily leading to its successor was often detailed by the medieval chroniclers, and is seen as a typical medieval approach.
To be noted is that Le Goff in saying that, did refer to a very small group of rich and prosperous people living during the Middle Ages. For the largest part of the citizens, was unknown.
Different medieval high-class authors described the as a succession leaving the supreme power in the hands of the monarch ruling the region of the author's provenance: Adso of Montier-en-Der (French area, 10th century): Roman Empire → Carolingian Franks → Saxons Otto of Freising (living in German region, 1114–1158): Rome → Franks → Lombards → Germans Chrétien de Troyes (living in medieval France, 12th century): Greece → Rome → FranceDe Troyes, Chrétien. Cligès. Circa 1176. Snorri Sturluson (Prose Edda Prologue, Iceland/Norway, ): Troy → Thrúdheim, Thrace → NorwayProse Edda Prologue Alfonso X of Castile (General Estoria, Castile, 13th century): Abraham → Egypt → Greece → Rome → Franks → Holy Roman EmpireAlfonso claimed the title during the Great Interregnum. Alfonso X of Castile (Estoria de España, Castile, 13th century): Greece → Carthage → Rome → Barbarian tribes → Visigoths → Astur–Leónese monarchy Richard de Bury (England, 14th century): Athens → Rome → Paris → England Dante Alighieri (Florence, c. 1265 – 1321) was strongly influenced by Virgil, who linked Rome's Caesar Augustus with Troy, most notably his Divine Comedy, in which Virgil appears as the author's guide through Hell and Purgatory. Dante's use of the Florentine dialect for this work rather than Latin influenced the course of literary developments in Europe. The Laurentian poets (Florence, 15th century) were modelling Lorenzo de' Medici as a leader of Ancient Rome. This rhetorical process formed an important part of Medici propaganda, as it tried to legitimate and give prestige to his reign. The same propagandistic use of the scheme has been made on behalf of other late 15th-century rulers in Italy. Philotheus of Pskov (Moscow, third Rome, Rus', c. 1510): Rome → Constantinople → Moscow Ibrahim Pasha (Ottoman Empire, 1523–1536) Roman Empire → Eastern Roman Empire → Seljuk Empire → Sultanate of Rum → Ottoman Empire
Later, continued and reinterpreted by modern and contemporary movements and authors (some known examples): Fifth Monarchists (England, 17th century): Caldeans (Babylonians) → Persians → Macedonian Empire → Rome → England (and the British Empire later) António Vieira (Portugal, 17th century): Assyro-Caldeans (Babylonians) → Persians → Greeks → Romans → Portuguese Empire Fernando Pessoa (Portugal, 20th century): Greece → Rome → Christianity → Europe → Portugal
Medieval and Renaissance authors often linked this transfer of power by genealogically attaching a ruling family to an ancient Greek or Trojan hero; this schema was modeled on Virgil's use of Aeneas (a Trojan hero) as progenitor of the city of Rome in his Aeneid. Continuing with this tradition, the twelfth-century Anglo-Norman authors Geoffrey of Monmouth (in his ) and Wace (in his ) linked the founding of Britain to the arrival of Brutus of Troy, son of Aeneas.Bratu, Cristian. "Translatio, autorité et affirmation de soi chez Gaimar, Wace et Benoît de Sainte-Maure." The Medieval Chronicle 8 (2013): 135–164.
In a similar way, the French Renaissance author Jean Lemaire de Belges (in his ) linked the founding of Celtic Gaul to the arrival of the Trojan Francus (i.e. Astyanax), the son of Hector; and of Celtic Germany to the arrival of Bavo, the cousin of Priam; in this way he established an illustrious genealogy for Pepin and Charlemagne (the legend of Francus would also serve as the basis for Ronsard's epic poem, "").
From Troy to Rome The Romans believed that they were descendants of Troy and this perceived genealogical connection meant a lot to them as it gave themselves a greater sense of legitimacy. A major aspect of the perceived connection and transfer from Troy to Rome comes from Virgil’s work, the Aeneid. Virgil uses the concept of and in his work to blend history and mythology into the grand story of Rome’s origin. The Aeneid as a work demonstrates the concept of by showing the movement of power and culture from Troy to Rome via the titular character of Aeneas and his journey; which includes his prophesied destiny of founding a new kingdom in the Latium area following the Trojan war. The reasons for why the Romans so deeply valued their perceived connection to heroic tradition of Troy and Greece could have been because of their perceived “un-heroic” early history or because they desired to have a more impressive heroic past that would lend their nation more credence.
From the Roman Empire/Byzantine Empire to the Holy Roman Empire
Famous and very successful was the use of the idea of the in establishing a link between the Western Roman Empire after its downfall in the fifth century, and the possessions ruled by Charlemagne between 768 and 814. Charlemagne was King of the Franks from 768 and King of the Lombards from 774 and negotiated an agreement with Pope Leo III to be crowned as Roman emperor in 800, reviving that title in Western Central Europe more than three centuries later. The title lapsed in 924, but was revived in 962 after negotiations between Otto I and Pope John XII, where Otto had his troops positioned near Rome. As a result, the Pope accepted Otto fashioning himself as Charlemagne's and the Carolingian Empire's successor, and beginning a continuous existence of the empire for over eight centuries. From 962 until the 12th century, the empire was one of the most powerful monarchies in Europe, as the Holy Roman Empire. Emperor Constantine I established Constantinople, a New Rome, as a second capital of the Roman Empire in 330. After the death of Emperor Theodosius I (347–395), the Roman Empire was permanently divided into the Western and the Eastern Roman Empire With the demise of the Western Empire in 476/480, the Byzantine Empire became the sole Roman Empire. Byzantine Emperor Constantine V married his son Leo IV to Irene of Athens on December 17, 768, brought to Constantinople by her father on November 1, 768. On January 14, 771, Irene gave birth to a son, Constantine. Following the deaths of Constantine V in 775 and Leo IV in 780, Irene became regent for their nine-year-old son, Constantine VI. As early as 781, Irene began to seek a closer relationship with the Carolingian dynasty and the Papacy. She negotiated a marriage between her son Constantine and Rotrude, a daughter of the ruling Frankish king, Charlemagne. Irene went as far as to send an official to instruct the Frankish princess in Greek; however, Irene herself broke off the engagement in 787, against her son's wishes. As Constantine VI approached maturity, the relationship between mother/regent and son/emperor was increasingly strained. In 797, Irene deposed her son, with his eyes being mutilated, who died before 805. Some Western authorities considered the Byzantine throne, now occupied by a woman, to be vacant and instead recognized that Charlemagne, who controlled Italy and much part of the former Western Roman Empire, had a valid claim to the imperial title. Pope Leo III, crowned Charlemagne as Roman Emperor in 800, an act not recognized by the Byzantine Empire. Irene is said to have endeavored to negotiate a marriage between herself and Charlemagne, but according to Theophanes the Confessor, who alone mentioned it, the scheme was frustrated by Aetios, one of her favorites. (Aetios was attempting to usurp power on behalf of his brother Leo.) In 802, Empress Irene was deposed by a conspiracy and replaced by Nikephoros I. She was exiled and died the following year. , a peace treaty in 803 between the Holy Roman Emperor Charlemagne and Nikephoros I, Basileus of the Eastern Roman Empire. Recognition of Charlemagne as Emperor (Basileus) in 812 by Emperor Michael I Rangabe of the Byzantine Empire (crowned on October 2, 811 by the Patriarch of Constantinople), after he reopened negotiations with the Franks. While acknowledging Charlemagne strictly as "Emperor", Michael only referred to himself as "Emperor of the Romans". In exchange for that recognition, Venice was returned to the Byzantine Empire. On February 2, 962, Otto I was solemnly crowned Holy Roman Emperor by Pope John XII. Ten days later at a Roman synod, Pope John XII, at Otto's desire, founded the Archbishopric of Magdeburg and the Bishopric of Merseburg, bestowed the pallium on the Archbishop of Salzburg and Archbishop of Trier, and confirmed the appointment of Rather as Bishop of Verona. The next day, the emperor issued a decree, the , in which he confirmed the Roman Church in its possessions, particularly those granted by the Donation of Pepin. On the other hand, the Pope had to accept that Otto and his heirs would have a vote in the nomination of popes as head of the Catholic Church and the Papal States, and he and his heirs had the position to overview the enforcement of law and order in the Papal states.