An assassination attempt, also known as Operation Nejuik or the Yıldız attack, was carried out on 21 July 1905 by the Armenian Revolutionary Federation (ARF) and anarchist militants against Ottoman Sultan Abdul Hamid II. The attack was perceived as an act of retribution against the main instigator of the Hamidian massacres (1894–1896), which caused the deaths of 100,000 to 300,000 Armenians. The increasingly unstable situation of the Ottoman Empire, particularly for ethnic and religious minorities who were discriminated against and persecuted, drove them to radicalize progressively. This trend was further facilitated by the introduction of socialism and anarchism into the Ottoman cultural sphere. After a gradual progression in their radicalization, the ARF members decided to assassinate the Sultan, entrusting the organization of the project to their founder and principal theorist, Christapor Mikaelian.
Assisted by Sophie Areshian, Martiros Margarian, Ardaches Seremdjian, Garabed Yeghiguian, the Belgian anarchist couple Anna Nellens-Edward Joris, and the German revolutionary Marie Seitz, Christapor Mikaelian orchestrated the attempt. However, he died while preparing explosives for the project in Bulgaria, which caused significant conflicts within the group and led to a change in strategy. The new approach was deadlier and less certain to kill their target but ensured the safety of the revolutionaries.
The attack was carried out on 21 July 1905 in front of the Yıldız Mosque. The group brought a cart loaded with melinite to the mosque, with Areshian setting the bomb's timer to explode as the Sultan exited. The attempt failed; it killed 26 people and injured 58 others, but Abdul Hamid II was unscathed.
After the attack, Edward Joris was arrested and sentenced to death, sparking a significant protest movement in Western Europe that ultimately led to his release. The ARF emerged from the attempt with the loss of Mikaelian and a major failure. Many questions remain about the operation.
Background
Context During the second half of the 19th century, the Ottoman Empire experienced two parallel phenomena: a growing decline coupled with the modernization of the country. The Empire faced territorial losses due to the gradual independence of several countries, such as Greece (1829) and, in the 1870s, Romania, Montenegro, and Serbia, along with a quasi-independence granted to Bulgaria. These territorial setbacks coincided with increasing incursions by Western powers into the Empire and the introduction of Western concepts such as nationalism and colonialism into Ottoman society. These cultural, economic, and political shocks created an increasingly violent and volatile situation, exacerbated by the legal discrimination imposed by the Ottoman state on ethnic and religious minorities such as Armenians, Greeks, Jews, and Assyrians, who were also subjected to periodic massacres. To maintain control over its colonized regions, including the Caucasus and Armenia, the Empire progressively relied on auxiliaries, typically Kurdish troops composed of pardoned criminals or tribal groups. These forces, known as the Hamidiye, were established by Abdul Hamid II to exert more effective control over the territory, "regulate" the colonized populations, and centralize his Empire. This situation progressively worsened, with numerous massacres being organized, tolerated, or covered up by the Ottoman administration. This culminated in the Hamidian massacres, which resulted in the deaths of between 100,000 and 300,000 Armenians over two years (1894–1896), foreshadowing the Armenian genocide (1915–1923).
At the same time, the introduction of Western ideologies into the Ottoman sphere brought socialism and anarchism into the Empire. Anarchism, in particular, which aligned well with the anti-colonial struggles of the period, influenced some Armenians, such as Simon Zavarian and Christapor Mikaelian. Both espoused an ideology akin to anarcho-communism and were deeply influenced by Mikhail Bakunin, whose ideas left a lasting mark on them. These two activists partnered with Stepan Zorian, another Armenian revolutionary, and together they founded the Armenian Revolutionary Federation (ARF) in Tbilisi in 1890. The organization was quickly influenced by the tactics of direct action, terrorism, and propaganda of the deed, which characterized anarchist movements and attacks in the West at the time. One of their earliest actions of this nature was the occupation of the Ottoman Bank in 1896, conducted with the assistance of revolutionaries from the Internal Macedonian Revolutionary Organization (IMRO). This event marked one of the first hostage-taking terrorist operations in history. However, it ended with a large-scale pogrom organized by Abdul Hamid II, resulting in the massacre of approximately 7,000 Armenians in the capital.
Beginnings The Armenian Revolutionary Federation (ARF) began contemplating the assassination of Abdul Hamid II as early as 1896 in retaliation for the Hamidian massacres. On 22 June 1896, Hovnan Tavtian, the editor-in-chief of Droshak, who was in Geneva at the time, wrote to Zavarian suggesting that assassinating the Sultan during the Friday prayer would be a good idea. Zavarian, however, disagreed, arguing that such an attack would be dangerous as it could lead to even greater persecution of Armenians. According to Gaïdz Minassian, the real reason for his reluctance may have been that, in 1896, the ARF lacked the financial resources necessary to undertake such a large-scale operation. In the years that followed, however, the organization gradually strengthened its structure and began collecting a "revolutionary tax" from the Armenian bourgeoisie. This allowed it to amass wealth and eventually consider the operation as a viable option. The violence endured by Armenians during the massacres, the worsening of their situation, and the complete inaction of Western powers led ARF members to radicalize progressively.
In 1898, during its second congress, the Armenian Revolutionary Federation (ARF) decided to begin preparations for a large-scale armed uprising that would encompass all the Armenian provinces of the Ottoman Empire. By 1901, the first secret preparations to assassinate Abdul Hamid II were initiated by Mikaelian and the organization's inner circle. In 1904, at its third congress, the ARF officially decided to take action, voting—using cryptic terms—to assassinate Abdul Hamid II. This assassination was planned to coincide with an armed uprising in Sasun. Unfortunately for the revolutionaries, Ottoman authorities became aware of the attempted insurrection, triggering the 1904 Sasun uprising. This revolt ended in a complete defeat for the insurgents and massacres of Armenians. The ARF also planned to launch guerrilla movements along the Empire's borders to pressure other powers into intervening.
Planning
The congress entrusted the organization of the assassination to its co-founder, Christapor Mikaelian (Samuel Fein), and a small group consisting of Ardaches Seremdjian (Torkom), Garabed Yeghiguian (Achod), Martiros Margarian (Safo-Liba Ripps), and Tavtian. Tavtian quickly left the group, but Mikaelian and the remaining conspirators gathered in Piraeus in 1904, where they added more members: Vramshabouh Kendirian (Yervant) and Chris Fenerdjian (Silvio Ricci).
During their stay in Greece, the conspirators were joined by Sophie Areshian (Rubina), who had been invited by Mikaelian after he met her in Baku and was impressed by her. Before her arrival, the revolutionaries convened to discuss whether or not to include women in the assassination's organization. They ultimately decided that it was better to directly consult the women's that were concerned by the discussion. On 4 December 1904, Areshian, the German revolutionary Marie Seitz (Emille-Sophie Rips), and a certain "Michelle" joined the discussions. They declared they were fully willing to participate in the project, were offended by the need to even ask, and stated that if necessary, they would organize the attempt themselves. The significant role of women in the ARF is not surprising, given the notable presence of women in far-left movements of the period.
The conspirators then made their way to Constantinople, joining the Ottoman capital. In the city, the seven-member Armenian commando group was, in reality, supported by a broader network established by the organization. This network consisted of fifteen individuals, including four women, who were responsible for logistics. Their tasks included transferring money, explosives, and weapons across different parts of the Empire or from abroad, as well as between the organization's various safe houses. This logistical team was also tasked with identifying new safe houses and monitoring whether Ottoman intelligence services were tracking anyone. For handling explosives, the ARF maintained connections with Professor Rouher from Geneva, who had prepared the bomb used in 1904 by Yegor Sazonov, an ally of the ARF, to assassinate Vyacheslav von Plehve, the Russian Minister of the Interior. Von Plehve was, among other things, responsible for the confiscation of the Armenian Apostolic Church’s properties. Additionally, the ARF worked with a chemistry professor named Rubanovitch, based in France.
The group also welcomed foreign revolutionaries, such as the Belgian anarchist Edward Joris, who became aware of the Armenians’ plight through Kendirian, his coworker. After forming a friendship with Joris, Kendirian informed the other members of the group about this potential recruit. They were very pleased, both because Joris was an anarchist, which made them believe he would readily join the operation, and because he was Belgian. This nationality offered significant advantages within the Ottoman Empire that were difficult or impossible to obtain as an Armenian. Joris, soon joined by his wife, the anarchist activist Anna Nellens (Bella), was able to move freely within the Empire, transport goods, and access surveilled areas where entry was less restricted for Westerners. These practical benefits likely also explain the organization's openness to including Marie Seitz in their plans.
The group also dismissed Chris Fenerdjian and ceased collaborating with him after determining that he was prompt to "recklessness". Mikaelian supported the idea of directly targeting the Sultan, if possible, by attacking him during one of his biannual visits to the Dolmabahçe Palace—where the commando would infiltrate and throw bombs at him. This method, inspired by the tactics of the Narodnaya Volya, of which Mikaelian had once been a member, was endorsed by Areshian. It had the advantage of minimizing civilian casualties while increasing the chances of killing the Sultan, though it also posed a significant risk to the commando members. However, conflicts quickly erupted within the organization. Mikaelian and Areshian disagreed with Margarian on the course of action. Margarian preferred to use a cart loaded with explosives in front of the Yıldız Mosque, a strategy that could cause numerous civilian casualties and was more likely to fail, but which would provide greater safety for the revolutionaries. The conflict between the group members was significant, with Areshian accusing Margarian of cowardice. She declared: