A candi (, ) is a Hindu or Buddhist temple in Indonesia, mostly built during the Zaman Hindu-Buddha or "Hindu-Buddhist period" between the 4th and 15th centuries.
The Kamus Besar Bahasa Indonesia defines a candi as an ancient stone building used for worship, or for storing the ashes of cremated Hindu or Buddhist kings and priests. Indonesian archaeologists describe candis as sacred structures of Hindu and Buddhist heritage, used for religious rituals and ceremonies in Indonesia. However, ancient secular structures such as gates, urban ruins, pools and bathing places are often called candi too, while a shrine that specifically serves as a tomb is called a cungkup.
In Hindu Balinese architecture, the term candi refers to a stone or brick structure of single-celled shrine with portico, entrance and stairs, topped with pyramidal roof and located within a pura. It is often modeled after East Javanese temples, and functions as a shrine to a specific deity. To the Balinese, a candi is not necessarily ancient, since candis continue to be (re-)built within these puras, such as the reconstructed temple in Alas Purwo, Banyuwangi.
In the contemporary Indonesian Buddhist perspective, candi also refers to a shrine, either ancient or new. Several contemporary viharas in Indonesia, for example, contain actual-size replicas or reconstructions of famous Buddhist temples, such as the replica of Pawon and Plaosan's perwara (ancillary) temples. In Buddhism, the role of a candi as a shrine is sometimes interchangeable with a stupa, a domed structure to store Buddhist relics or the ashes of cremated Buddhist priests, patrons or benefactors. Borobudur, Muara Takus and Batujaya, for example, are actually elaborate stupas.
In the modern Indonesian language, the term candi can be translated as a "temple" or similar structure, especially belonging to the Hindu and Buddhist faiths. Thus, temples in Cambodia (such as the Angkor Wat), Champa (Central and Southern Vietnam), Thailand, Laos, Myanmar and India are also called candi in Indonesian.
Terminology
Candi refers to a structure based on the Indian type of single-celled shrine, with a pyramidal tower above it, and a portico.Philip Rawson: The Art of Southeast Asia The term Candi is given as a prefix to the many temple-mountains in Indonesia, built as a representation of the Cosmic Mount Meru, an epitome of the universe. However, the term is also applied to many non-religious structures dated from the same period, such as gapura (gates), petirtaan (pools) and some habitation complexes. Examples of non-temple candis are the Bajang Ratu and Wringin Lawang gates of Majapahit. The "Candi Tikus bathing pool" in Trowulan and Jalatunda in Mount Penanggungan slopes, as well as the remnants of non-religious habitations and urban structures such as Ratu Boko and some of Trowulan city ruins, are also considered candi.
In ancient Java, a temple was probably originally called (), as evidenced by the Manjusrigrha inscription (dated to 792 CE) that mentioned "Prasada Vajrasana Manjusrigrha" to refer to the Sewu temple. This term is akin to the Cambodian and Thai term prasat which refer to the towering structure of a temple.
Etymology
From a Hindu perspective, the term candi itself is believed to have been derived from Candika, one of the manifestations of the goddess Durga as the goddess of death. This suggests that in ancient Indonesia the candi had mortuary functions as well as connections with the afterlife. The association of the name candi, or with Hindu-Buddhist temples is unknown in India and other parts of Southeast Asia outside of Indonesia, such as Cambodia, Thailand, or Burma.
Another theory from the Buddhist perspective suggests that the term candi might be a localized form of the Pali word cedi (Sanskrit: caitya), which is related to the Thai word chedi, which refers to a stupa. It may also be related to the Bodhisattva Candī (also known as Cundī or Candā).
Historians suggest that the temples of ancient Java were also used to store the ashes of cremated deceased kings or royalty. This is in line with the Buddhist concept of stupas as structures to store Buddhist relics, including the ashes and remains of holy Buddhist priests, kings, or patrons of Buddhism. The statue of the god stored inside the garbhagriha (main chamber) of the temple is often modeled after the deceased king and is considered to be the deified person of the king portrayed as Vishnu or Shiva according to the concept of devaraja. For example, the statue of king Airlangga from Belahan temple in Pasuruan is portrayed as Vishnu riding Garuda.
Architecture
The candi architecture follows the typical Hindu architecture traditions based on Vastu Shastra. The temple layout, especially in the Central Java period, incorporates mandala temple plan arrangements and the typical high towering spires of Hindu temples. The candi was designed to mimic Meru, the holy mountain that is the abode of gods. The whole temple is a model of Hindu universe, according to Hindu cosmology, and the layers of Loka.
Structural elements
The candi structure and layout contains a hierarchy of the zones, from the less holy to the holiest realms. The Indic tradition of Hindu-Buddhist architecture arranges elements in three parts. Subsequently, the design, plan and layout of the temple follows the rule of space allocation within three elements; commonly identified as foot (base), body (center), and head (roof). The three zones are arranged according to a sacred hierarchy. Each of these Hindu and Buddhist concepts have their own terms, but the concept's essentials are identical. Either the compound site plan (horizontally) or the temple structure (vertically) consists of three zones:Konservasi Borobudur (in Indonesian) Bhurloka (in Buddhism, Kāmadhātu), the lowest realm of common mortals; humans, animals and demons. Where humans are bound by their lust, desire and unholy way of life. The outer courtyard and the foot (base) of each temple symbolize the realm of bhurloka. Bhuvarloka (in Buddhism, Rupadhatu), the middle realm of holy people, rishis, ascetics, and lesser gods. People here begin to see the light of truth. The middle courtyard and the body of each temple symbolize the realm of bhuvarloka. Svarloka (in Buddhism, Arupadhatu), the highest and holiest realm of gods, also known as svargaloka. The inner courtyard and the rooves of each temple symbolize the realm of svarloka. The rooves of Hindu structures are usually crowned with ratna (Sanskrit: jewel) or vajra, or, in the eastern Java period, a cube structure. Stupa or dagoba cylindrical structures serve as the pinnacle of Buddhist temples.
Style Soekmono, an Indonesian archaeologist, has classified the candi styles into two main groups: a central Java style, which predominantly date to before 1000 CE, and an eastern Java style, which date to after 1000 CE. He groups the temples of Sumatra and Bali into the eastern Java style.
Parts of the templeCentral Java styleEastern Java styleShape of the structureTends to be bulkyTends to be slender and tallRoofClearly stepped roof sections, usually consist of three partsThe multiple parts of the stepped sections form a smooth combined roof structure PinnacleStupa (Buddhist temples), Ratna or Vajra (Hindu temples)Cube (mostly Hindu temples), sometimes Dagoba cylindrical structures (Buddhist temples)Portal and niches adornmentKala-Makara style; Kala head without lower jaw opening its mouth located on top of the portal, connected with double Makara on each side of the portalOnly Kala head sneering with the mouth complete with lower jaw located on top of the portal, Makara is absentReliefProjected rather high from the background, the images was done in naturalistic styleProjected rather flat from the background, the images was done in stylized style similar to Balinese wayang imageLayout and location of the main templeConcentric mandala, symmetric, formal; with main temple located in the center of the complex surrounded by smaller perwara temples in regular rowsLinear, asymmetric, followed topography of the site; with main temple located in the back or furthermost from the entrance, often located in the highest ground of the complex, perwara temples is located in front of the main templeDirectionMostly faced eastMostly faced westMaterialsMostly andesite stoneMostly red brick
There are material, form, and location exceptions to these general design traits. While the Penataran, Jawi, Jago, Kidal and Singhasari temples, for example, belong to the eastern Java group, they use andesite stone similar to the Central Java temple material. Temple ruins in Trowulan, such as Brahu, Jabung and Pari temples use red brick. Similarly, the Prambanan temple is tall and slender similar to the east Java style, yet the roof design is Central Javan in style. The locations do not always correlate with the temple styles: for example Candi Badut is located in Malang, East Java, yet the period and style belongs to the older 8th century central Javanese style.
The earlier northern central Java complexes, such as the Dieng temples, are smaller and contain only temples which exhibit simpler carvings, whereas the later southern complexes, such as Sewu temple, are grander, with a richer elaboration of carving, and concentric layout of the temple complex.
The Majapahit period saw the revival of Austronesian megalithic design elements, such stepped pyramids (punden berundak). These design cues are seen in the Sukuh and Cetho temples in Mount Lawu in eastern Central Java, and in stepped sanctuary structures on the Mount Penanggungan slopes that are similar to meso-American stepped pyramids.
Materials
Most of the well-preserved candi in Indonesia are made from andesite stone. Their longevity is due to the stone's durability, compared to bricks, against tropical weathers and torrential rains. Nevertheless, certain periods, especially the Majapahit era, saw the extensive use of red brick as temple and building materials. The following materials are commonly used in temple construction in Indonesia:
Andesite is an extrusive igneous volcanic rock, of intermediate composition, with aphanitic to porphyritic texture. Its colour ranges from light to dark grey. Andesite is especially abundant in the volcanic island of Java and is mined from certain cliffs or stone quarries with andesite deposits formed from compressed ancient magma chambers or cooled down lava spills. Each andesite stone is custom made into blocks with interlocking technique, to construct temple walls, floors and building. Andesite stones are easily formed and carved with an iron chisel, making it a suitable material for temple walls and decorative carvings such as bas-reliefs. The Andesite walls were carved with exquisite narrative bas-reliefs, which can be observed in many temples, especially in Borobudur and Prambanan. Andesite rocks are also used as the material for carved statues, like the images of deities and Buddha.
Brick is also used to construct temples. The oldest brick temple structure is the Batujaya temple compound in Karawang, West Java, dated to the 2nd to 12th century CE. Although brick had been used in the candi of Indonesia's classical age, it was Majapahit architects of the 14th and 15th centuries who mastered it. Making use of a vine sap and palm sugar mortar, their temples had a strong geometric quality. Examples of Majapahit temples include Brahu temple in Trowulan, Pari in Sidoarjo, and Jabung in Probolinggo. Some temples in Sumatra, such as Bahal temple, Muaro Jambi, and Muara Takus are made from bricks. However, compared to lava andesite stone, clay red bricks are less durable, especially if exposed to hot and humid tropical elements and torrential monsoon rain. As a result, many red brick structures have crumbled down over centuries, and reconstruction efforts require recasting and replacing the damaged structure with new bricks.