Muted Group Theory (MGT) is a communication theory developed by cultural anthropologist Edwin Ardener and feminist scholar Shirley Ardener in 1975, that exposes the sociolinguistic power imbalances that can suppress social groups' voices.

Mutedness refers to inequitable barriers that disallow a social group from expressing themselves. The theory details the interlinked relationship between a dominant group and subordinate group(s) through two pathways: The dominant group constructs the language system that is imbued with social norms and vocabulary Subordinate group(s) assimilate by learning the dominant language to communicate

Subordinate groups may not be able to articulate their thoughts clearly to the dominant group, further complicating the translation process and resulting in misinterpretation. Muted group theory also applies to marginalized groups whose voices may be disregarded by the dominant group. Essentially speaking, language in its derivatives and usage pertain only to a single-axis representation, and inherent understanding, of what is a multi-axis reality.

Muted group theory relies on the theoretical framework built by Edwin Ardener and feminist scholars as well as key concepts including mutedness and the muting process that marginalized groups face. Muted group theory is extended into real-world applications including mass media, social rituals, the workplace, politics, education, theology and is critiqued by other theorists that evaluate the differentiation in communication styles between dominant and subordinate groups.

Overview

History In 1968, Edwin Ardener pointed out a phenomenon where anthropologists had difficulties reproducing models of the society from women's perspectives, if they (the models) do not conform to those generated by men.

In 1971, Shirley Ardener cited instances from feminism movements to articulate how women as a muted group used body symbolism to justify their actions and arguments in her article "Sexual Insult and Female Militancy".

In 1975, Shirley Ardener reprinted Edwin's paper "The Interpretation of Ritual,1972" and included her sexual insult text in the book "Perceiving Women", for which she wrote an intro.

Origin

British anthropologist, Edwin Ardener, fleshed out muted group theory in the field of cultural anthropology. The first formulation of MGT emerges from one of Edwin Ardener's short essays, entitled "Belief and the Problem of Women." In social anthropology, the problem of women is divided in two parts: technical and analytical.Korn, J. U. (2016). Genderless’ online discourse in the 1970s: muted group theory in early social computing. Morgan & Claypool Publishers, New York, NY, 213-230. The technical problem is that although half of the population is female, ethnographers have neglected them in social anthropological studies. Ardener added that women were reportedly more difficult to access and interview, especially due to factors including "they giggle when young, snort when old, reject the question and the like."

Ardener wrote that "those trained in ethnography evidently have a bias towards the kinds of models that men are ready to provide (or to concur in) rather than towards any that women might provide."Ardener, Edwin, & Chapman, Malcolm. (2007). The voice of prophecy and other essays. New York: Berghahn Books. Ardener argued that men produce and control symbolic production in society.

The technicality interlinks with the analytical aspect of the problem of women through the question: "[…] if the models of society made by most ethnographers tend to be models derived from the male portion of that society, how does the symbolic weight of the other mass of persons express itself?"

After conducting an experiment with the information in his essay, the results indicated that the male point of view dominates society. The graph shows that the standard solid line reflects men's dominance. In contrast, women's perspectives is considered insignificant, falling into the muted category with the graph's broken line. According to Ardener, because male-based understandings of society represent the dominant worldview, certain groups are silenced or muted.

He wrote: "In these terms if the male perception yields a dominant structure, the female one is a muted structure." As part of the critical approach to the world, Ardener uses MGT to explore the power and societal structure in relation to the dynamism between dominant and subordinated groups. Moreover, Ardener's concept of muted groups does not only apply to women but can also be applied to marginalized groups within social structures.

Expansion – muted group theory through the feminist lens

Feminist scholars Cheris Kramarae, Barrie Thorne and Nancy Henley explored sociolinguistics that "defines, deprecates, and ignores women."Kramer, Cheris; Thorne, Barrie; Henley, Nancy (April 1978). "Perspectives on Language and Communication". Signs: Journal of Women in Culture and Society. 3 (3): 638–651. doi:10.1086/493507. S2CID 144168018 They limited their research especially in the gender culture, whereas the Ardeners were applying MGT across different cultures. The scholars discovered that "male dominance affects more than just the way sexes speak but the content and structure of the English language. Women are often defined by their relation to men (“Miss/Mrs.” or “Harold's Widow”) while men have more autonomous varied linguistic status." Kramarae attributed the series of phenomena to the "man-made language" conception and stated that women would be identified as a muted group.Kramarae, Cheris (1981). Women and men speaking: Frameworks for analysis. Newbury House Publishers. Rowley, MA: Print.

Inspired from Kramarae's pieces, scholars Anita Taylor and M.J. Hardman observed that the dominant language appears to dismiss concepts and values that are significant to women but not to men.Taylor, A.; Hardman, M. J. (2000). "Introduction: The meaning of voice.". Hearing many voices. Cresskill, NJ: Hampton Press. pp. 1–27.

Women and men that are of the same social rank are usually addressed by asymmetrical usages of first and last name (women are usually called by first name while men are by the last name);Rosaldo, Michelle Z. (April 1977). "Barrie Thorne and Nancy Henley, eds., Sex and language Difference and dominance. Rowley, Mass.: Newbury House, 1975. Pp. xii–311". Language in Society. 6(1): 110–113. doi:10.1017/S0047404500004930. S2CID 143648246. or associations of certain words with women are formed to maintain the social stereotype (sewing, cooking, house chores, etc.).Faires Conklin, Nancy. "Toward a Feminist Analysis of Linguistic Behavior". The University of Michigan Papers in Women's Studies. 1(1): 51–73. hdl:2027/spo.acp0359.0001.001:05

In modern society, communication in virtual communities have contributed to the formation of relationships. "Before a woman can write exactly as she wishes to write, she has many difficulties to face. To begin with, there is a technical difficulty- so simple, apparently, in reality, so baffling,- that the very form of the sentence does not fit her. It is a sentence made by men," said Virginia Woolf.Gannon-Leary, P. & Wall, C. (1999). A sentence made by men. The European Journal of Women's Studies. 6, 21-29. http://www.brown.uk.com/brownlibrary/EJWS.htm

Key concepts

Mutedness Mutedness occurs when individuals of a subordinate group struggle to fairly enunciate their thought processes, without the external pressure to assimilate to the dominant group's established language.Griffin, Emory A (2011). A First Look at Communication Theory. New York: McGraw-Hill. Consequently, the loss of autonomy could lead to feeling overlooked, muffled, and invisible. As gender communication scholar Cheris Kramarae states, social interaction and communication create the current language structure. Since the latter was mainly built by men, men have an advantage over women.

As Cowan points out, "'mutedness' does not refer to the absence of voice but to a kind of distortion where subordinate voices…are allowed to speak but only in the confines of the dominant communication system."Cowan, R. (May, 2007). Muted group theory: Providing answers and raising questions concerning workplace bullying. Conference Papers -- National Communication Association. Chicago, IL.

Muted group The muted group or subordinated group is relative to the dominant group. The premise of MGT is that members of the marginalized group(s) would mute themselves without coercion, which is based on the fact that the silencing of muted group(s) is a socially shared phenomenon.Sheriff, Robin E. (2000). "Exposing Silence as Cultural Censorship: A Brazilian Case". American Anthropologist. 102 (1): 114–132. doi:10.1525/aa.2000.102.1.114. ISSN 1548-1433 According to Gerdrin, muting or silencing is a social phenomenon based on the tacit understanding that within a society there are dominant and non-dominant groups.Gendrin, D. M. Homeless women's inner voices: Friends or foes?, in Hearing many voices. Hampton Press. Thus, the muting process presupposes a collective understanding of who is in power and who is not. The discrepancies in power result in the "oppressor" and "the oppressed." Kramarae points out that the muted group as "the oppressed" are people who don't have a "public recognized vocabulary" to express their experience. Their failure to articulate their ideas lead to their doubt about "the validity of their experience" and "the legitimacy of their feelings." Kramarae also addresses that gender, race, and class hierarchies, are factors where muted groups are supported by "political, educational, religious, legal, and media systems." Muted groups' lack of power usually keeps them at the margin of society.

The "muting" process Muting methods Several scholars have researched and studied how the "muting" process occurs. According to West and Turner (2019), there are four methods that can cause muting: ridicule, ritual, control and harassment. A central factor that contributes to these silencing methods is the trivialization of the lexicon and speech patterns that is often used to describe women's activities.Houston, Marsha; Kramarae, Cheris (October 1991). "Speaking from Silence: Methods of Silencing and of Resistance". Discourse & Society. 2 (4): 387–399. doi:10.1177/0957926591002004001. S2CID 145782530

Ridicule

Houston and Kramarae postulate that ridicule has muted women, such as trivializing their opinions, ideas, concerns and censoring women's voices. According to their research, women can be ridiculed in the health care system, family hierarchies, educational policies and their bodies have been used as props in political debates.Brann, M.; Mattson, M. (2004). "Reframing communication during gynecological exams: A feminist virtue ethic of care perspective". Gender in applied communication contexts. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage. pp. 147–168.

Ritual

Kramarae reasoned that women's voices can be censored by social rituals in institutions that embrace women's subservience. A typical example is wedding ceremony.

Control

Scholars pointed out that many social decisions are controlled by men, including history book contents, mainstream media, communication practices, etc.James, D.; Drackich, J. (1993). "Understanding gender differences in amount of talk". In Tannen, D. (ed.). Gender and conversational interaction. Oxford: University Press. pp. 281–312. Men's tactical method to interrupt particularly women during a conversation is a frequently used controlling form.DeFrancisco, Victoria Leto (October 1991). "The Sounds of Silence: How Men Silence Women in Marital Relations". Discourse & Society. 2 (4): 413–423. doi:10.1177/0957926591002004003. ISSN 0957-9265. S2CID 145790027.

Harassment