The Battle of Xiaoting (), also known as the Battle of Yiling () and the Battle of Yiling and Xiaoting, was fought between the Shu Han and Eastern Wu dynasties, in the years 221 and 222 during the early Three Kingdoms period of China. The battle is significant because the Eastern Wu was able to turn the situation from a series of initial losses into a defensive stalemate, before proceeding to win a decisive victory over the Shu Han. The Eastern Wu victory halted the Shu Han invasion and preceded the death of Liu Bei, Shu Han's founding emperor.
Background
In late 219, Lü Meng, a general serving under Sun Quan, led an army to invade Liu Bei's territories in southern Jing Province. Guan Yu, Liu Bei's general in charge of guarding Jing Province, was away at the Battle of Fancheng and did not know about the invasion until after he returned from his Pyrrhic victory at Fancheng. He was surrounded by Sun Quan's forces in Maicheng (麥城; in Dangyang, Hubei), captured in an ambush while trying to break out of the siege, and eventually executed by Sun Quan's forces in Linju (臨沮; present-day Nanzhang County, Hubei).(權已據江陵，盡虜羽士衆妻子，羽軍遂散。權遣將逆擊羽，斬羽及子平于臨沮。) Sanguozhi vol. 36.
On 25 November 220, Emperor Xian, the figurehead monarch of the Eastern Han dynasty, abdicated in favour of Cao Pi and ended the Eastern Han dynasty. On 11 December, Cao Pi established the state of Wei to replace the Eastern Han dynasty and became its first emperor.(冬，十月，乙卯，漢帝告祠高廟，使行御史大夫張音持節奉璽綬詔冊，禪位于魏。王三上書辭讓，乃為壇於繁陽，辛未，升壇受璽綬，卽皇帝位，燎祭天地、嶽瀆，改元，大赦。) Zizhi Tongjian vol. 69. On 10 May 221, Liu Bei declared himself emperor of the Han,(夏，四月，丙午，漢中王卽皇帝位於武擔之南，大赦，改元章武。以諸葛亮為丞相，許靖為司徒。) Zizhi Tongjian vol. 69.([建安二十五年]冬，魏嗣王稱尊號，改元為黃初。二年四月，劉備稱帝於蜀。) Sanguozhi vol. 47. effectively establishing a new state (today known as Shu Han) in opposition to Cao Pi's Wei. Around the same time, Sun Quan shifted the capital of his territories from Gong'an County to E County, which he renamed "Wuchang" ().(孫權自公安徙都鄂，更名鄂曰武昌。) Zizhi Tongjian vol. 69. On 23 September 221, Sun Quan pledged allegiance to Cao Pi and became a vassal of the Wei state; in return, Cao Pi awarded Sun Quan the title "King of Wu" ().(八月，孫權遣使稱臣，卑辭奉章，幷送于禁等還。 ... 丁巳，遣太常邢貞奉策卽拜孫權為吳王，加九錫。) Zizhi Tongjian vol. 69.
Prelude Liu Bei desired to avenge Guan Yu and take back Jing Province, so he made preparations for war against Sun Quan.(漢主恥關羽之沒，將擊孫權。) Zizhi Tongjian vol. 69. When Zhao Yun, a veteran general under Liu Bei, tried to dissuade his lord from going to war with Sun Quan, Liu Bei ignored him. Later, when Liu Bei launched the campaign against Sun Quan, he did not bring Zhao Yun along and instead left him behind to guard Jiangzhou.(孫權襲荊州，先主大怒，欲討權。雲諫曰：「國賊是曹操，非孫權也，且先滅魏，則吳自服。操身雖斃，子丕篡盜，當因衆心，早圖關中，居河、渭上流以討凶逆，關東義士必裹糧策馬以迎王師。不應置魏，先與吳戰；兵勢一交，不得卒解也。」 ... 先主不聽，遂東征，留雲督江州。先主失利於秭歸，雲進兵至永安，吳軍已退。) Zhao Yun Biezhuan annotation in Sanguozhi vol. 36. Qin Mi, an official under Liu Bei, also advised his lord against going to war with Sun Quan but ended up being thrown into prison.(益州辟宓為從事祭酒。先主旣稱尊號，將東征吳，宓陳天時必無其利，坐下獄幽閉，然後貸出。) Sanguozhi vol. 38.
Liu Bei ordered Zhang Fei to lead 10,000 troops from Langzhong to join him at Jiangzhou. During the mobilisation, Zhang Fei was assassinated by his subordinates Fan Qiang () and Zhang Da (), who cut off his head and brought it along with them as they defected to Sun Quan's side. Zhang Fei's adjutant wrote a report to Liu Bei. When Liu Bei heard that Zhang Fei's adjutant sent him a report, he exclaimed: "Oh! (Zhang) Fei is dead."(先主伐吳，飛當率兵萬人，自閬中會江州。臨發，其帳下將張達、范彊殺飛，持其首，順流而奔孫權。飛營都督表報先主，先主聞飛都督之有表也，曰：「噫！飛死矣。」) Sanguozhi vol. 36.
In August 221, Liu Bei personally led his army to attack Sun Quan. He also gave higher appointments to some mid-ranking Shu officers from Jing Province, such as Feng Xi and Zhang Nan, to further raise his army's morale for the campaign. Sun Quan sent Zhuge Jin as his representative to meet Liu Bei and start peace talks.(秋，七月，漢主自率諸軍擊孫權，權遣使求和於漢。) Zizhi Tongjian vol. 69. When Zhuge Jin met Liu Bei, he said: Liu Bei refused to listen to him.(漢主不聽。) Zizhi Tongjian vol. 69.
Battle
Opening moves In August 221, Liu Bei sent his generals Wu Ban and Feng Xi to attack the Wu positions at the Wu Gorge, which were guarded by Li Yi () and Liu E (). After Wu Ban and Feng Xi achieved success, the Shu army, comprising over 40,000 troops, advanced further to Zigui County. Liu Bei also sent messengers to request reinforcements from the local tribes in Wuling Commandery (武陵郡).([秋，七月， ...] 漢主遣將軍吳班、馮習攻破權將李異、劉阿等於巫，進兵秭歸，兵四萬餘人。武陵蠻夷皆遣使往請兵。) Zizhi Tongjian vol. 69.(初，先主忿孫權之襲關羽，將東征，秋七月，遂帥諸軍伐吳。孫權遣書請和，先主盛怒不許，吳將陸議、李異、劉阿等屯巫、秭歸；將軍吳班、馮習自巫攻破異等，軍次秭歸，武陵五谿蠻夷遣使請兵。) Sanguozhi vol. 32. At Zigui, Liu Bei met up with Liao Hua, a former subordinate of Guan Yu. Liao Hua had become a prisoner-of-war in Wu after Guan Yu's death, but managed to escape and make his way back to Shu. Liu Bei appointed him as the Administrator of Yidu.(為前將軍關羽主簿，羽敗，屬吳。思歸先主，乃詐死，時人謂為信然，因携持老母晝夜西行。會先主東征，遇於秭歸。先主大恱，以化為宜都太守。) Sanguozhi vol. 45.
In response to the Shu invasion, Sun Quan appointed Lu Xun as his Grand Chief Controller () and ordered him to lead 50,000 troops to resist the enemy. Lu Xun had under his command several Wu officers such as Zhu Ran, Pan Zhang, Song Qian, Han Dang,(... 遷偏將軍，領永昌太守。宜都之役，與陸遜、朱然等共攻蜀軍於涿鄉，大破之，徙威烈將軍，封都亭侯。) Sanguozhi vol. 55. Xu Sheng,(後遷建武將軍，封都亭侯，領廬江太守，賜臨城縣為奉邑。劉備次西陵，盛攻取諸屯，所向有功。) Sanguozhi vol. 55. Xianyu Dan (), and Sun Huan.([秋，七月， ...] 權以鎮西將軍陸遜為大都督、假節，督將軍朱然、潘璋、宋謙、韓當、徐盛、鮮于丹、孫桓等五萬人拒之。) Zizhi Tongjian vol. 69.(黃武元年，劉備率大衆來向西界，權命遜為大都督、假節，督朱然、潘璋、宋謙、韓當、徐盛、鮮于丹、孫桓等五萬人拒之。) Sanguozhi vol. 58.
Shu army's approach In February 222, Liu Bei planned to lead his army from Zigui (秭歸) further into Jing Province to reclaim the province. However, the Shu general Huang Quan noted that the Wu forces were powerful and had used the Yangtze to their advantage, so he volunteered to lead the attack and suggested that Liu Bei remain behind as backup. Liu Bei refused to listen to him, appointed him as General Who Guards the North (), and put him in charge of a separate Shu army to defend the northern flank (the northern bank of the Yangtze) from any possible attack by Wei forces. He then personally led the main Shu army, which travelled along the southern bank of the Yangtze.(及稱尊號，將東伐吳，權諫曰：「吳人悍戰，又水軍順流，進易退難，臣請為先驅以甞寇，陛下宜為後鎮。」先主不從，以權為鎮北將軍，督江北軍以防魏師；先主自在江南。) Sanguozhi vol. 43.
Liu Bei also ordered Wu Ban (吳班) and Chen Shi (陳式) to lead the Shu navy to Yiling on the banks of the Yangtze. In the meantime, he also sent Ma Liang as an envoy to meet the tribes in Wuling Commandery and seek to bribe their chiefs with money and official titles to win their support.(先主稱尊號，以良為侍中。及東征吳，遣良入武陵招納五溪蠻夷，蠻夷渠帥皆受印號，咸如意指。會先主敗績於夷陵，良亦遇害。) Sanguozhi vol. 39.(二年春正月，先主軍還秭歸，將軍吳班、陳式水軍屯夷陵，夾江東西岸。二月，先主自秭歸率諸將進軍，緣山截嶺，於夷道猇亭駐營，自佷山通武陵，遣侍中馬良安慰五谿蠻夷，咸相率響應。) Sanguozhi vol. 32. As the tribes in Wuling grew restless upon the Shu army's approach, Sun Quan sent Bu Zhi to guard Yiyang and deal with any unrest.(隲因承制遣使宣恩撫納，是加拜平戎將軍，封廣信侯。 ... 會劉備東下，武陵蠻夷蠢動，權遂命隲上益陽。備旣敗績，而零、桂諸郡猶相驚擾，處處阻兵；隲周旋征討，皆平之。) Sanguozhi vol. 52.
When Wu generals wanted to attack the Shu army as it approached,(吳書曰：諸將並欲迎擊備， ...) Wu Shu annotation in Sanguozhi vol. 58. Lu Xun objected and said:
The Wu generals did not understand Lu Xun's reasoning and thought that he feared the enemy so they were very unhappy with him.(諸將不解，以為遜畏之，各懷憤恨。) Wu Shu annotation in Sanguozhi vol. 58.
Stalemate The Shu army passed through the Wu Gorge, Jianping (), Lianping (), and Lianwei (), and arrived at the border of Yiling, where they constructed about 10 fortified garrisons. Liu Bei appointed Feng Xi as the Grand Controller (), Zhang Nan as the vanguard commander (), and Fu Kuang, Zhao Rong (), Liao Hua, and Fu Rong as detachment commanders (). The Shu and Wu forces were locked in a stalemate for about six months from February to July 222.(漢人自巫峽建平連營至夷陵界，立數十屯，以馮習為大督，張南為前部督，自正月與吳相拒，至六月不決。) Zizhi Tongjian vol. 69.
Liu Bei ordered Wu Ban to lead a few thousand soldiers out of the mountainous regions to set up camps on flat terrain and provoke the Wu forces to attack them.(備從巫峽、建平、連平、連圍至夷陵界，立數十屯，以金錦爵賞誘動諸夷，使將軍馮習為大督，張南為前部，輔匡、趙融、廖淳、傅肜等各為別督，先遣吳班將數千人於平地立營，欲以挑戰。) Sanguozhi vol. 58. When the Wu officers wanted to respond to the taunts and attack the enemy, Lu Xun said: "This must be a trick. We should observe first."(諸將皆欲擊之，遜曰：「此必有譎，且觀之。」) Sanguozhi vol. 58.
As Lu Xun suspected, there were actually 8,000 Shu troops waiting in ambush in the nearby valleys. Since the Wu forces did not respond to the taunts, Liu Bei abandoned his plan to lure the enemy into the ambush and ordered the 8,000 soldiers to come out of the valleys. When Lu Xun heard about it, he told the Wu officers: "The reason why I did not follow your suggestions to attack the enemy is because I suspected there was something fishy about it." He then wrote a memorial to Sun Quan to emphasize the strategic importance of Yiling, point out some of Liu Bei's weaknesses, and reassure Sun Quan that he would defeat the enemy.(備知其計不可，乃引伏兵八千，從谷中出。遜曰：「所以不聽諸君擊班者，揣之必有巧故也。」遜上疏曰：「夷陵要害，國之關限，雖為易得，亦復易失。失之非徒損一郡之地，荊州可憂。今日爭之，當令必諧。備干天常，不守窟穴，而敢自送。臣雖不材，憑奉威靈，以順討逆，破壞在近。尋備前後行軍，多敗少成，推此論之，不足為戚。臣初嫌之，水陸俱進，今反舍船就步，處處結營，察其布置，必無他變。伏願至尊高枕，不以為念也。」) Sanguozhi vol. 58.
Wu counter-attack and the burning of the Shu camps Several days later, the Wu officers told Lu Xun: Lu Xun replied:
Lu Xun then targeted one enemy camp and attacked it but failed to capture it. The Wu officers complained: "We are sacrificing our soldiers' lives for nothing." Lu Xun replied: "I have devised a strategy for defeating the enemy." He then ordered his men to carry a pile of straw each and launch a fire attack on the enemy. Upon the commencement of the fire attack, Lu Xun led all the Wu units on an all-out assault on the Shu forces.(乃先攻一營，不利。諸將皆曰：「空殺兵耳。」遜曰：「吾已曉破之之術。」乃勑各持一把茅，以火攻拔之。一爾勢成，通率諸軍同時俱攻， ...) Sanguozhi vol. 58. Zhu Ran defeated the Shu vanguard force, cut off its retreat route and forced Liu Bei to retreat.(... 遷昭武將軍，封西安鄉侯。 ... 黃武元年，劉備舉兵攻宜都，然督五千人與陸遜并力拒備。然別攻破備前鋒，斷其後道，備遂破走。) Sanguozhi vol. 56. Pan Zhang's subordinates killed Feng Xi and inflicted heavy casualties on Feng's unit.(... 拜璋為太守、振威將軍，封溧陽侯。 ... 劉備出夷陵，璋與陸遜并力拒之，璋部下斬備護軍馮習等，所殺傷甚衆，拜平北將軍、襄陽太守。) Sanguozhi vol. 55. Song Qian also destroyed five Shu garrisons and killed its defending officers.(黃武元年春正月，陸遜部將軍宋謙等攻蜀五屯，皆破之，斬其將。) Sanguozhi vol. 47. Zhang Nan, Shamoke (a tribal king allied with Shu), Ma Liang, and Wang Fu(國山名甫，廣漢郪人也。 ... 隨先主征吳，軍敗於秭歸，遇害。) Sanguozhi vol. 45. were killed in action, while Du Lu () and Liu Ning () were forced to surrender to Wu. Over 40 Shu camps were destroyed by the Wu forces.(... 斬張南、馮習及胡王沙摩柯等首，破其四十餘營。備將杜路、劉寧等窮逼請降。) Sanguozhi vol. 58.(後十餘日，陸議大破先主軍於猇亭，將軍馮習、張南等皆沒。) Sanguozhi vol. 32. Throughout the Shu army, only Xiang Chong's unit managed to retreat without sustaining any losses.(朗兄子寵，先主時為牙門將。秭歸之敗，寵營特完。) Sanguozhi vol. 41.
The actual location of the battle is at the juncture between the west of Yidu County and east of Changyang County in Yichang, Hubei.
Liu Bei's retreat to Baidicheng Liu Bei and his remaining troops retreated to the Ma'an Hills (馬鞍山; east of present-day Changyang County, Hubei), where they continued to be fiercely assaulted by the Wu forces from all directions. At the same time, landslides occurred at the Ma'an Hills and caused the Shu forces to sustain thousands of casualties. The Wu general Sun Huan fought with his life and managed to break through enemy lines and capture the key positions in the hills. Liu Bei was forced to retreat through the hazardous mountainous terrain and barely escaped alive at night.(年二十五，拜安東中郎將，與陸遜共拒劉備。備軍衆甚盛，彌山盈谷，桓投刀奮命，與遜勠力，備遂敗走。桓斬上兜道，截其徑要。備踰山越險，僅乃得免，忿恚歎曰：「吾昔初至京城，桓尚小兒，而今迫孤乃至此也！」) Sanguozhi vol. 51. During the retreat, he ordered his men to pile up their armour and set them on fire to create barriers for the pursuing Wu forces.(備升馬鞍山，陳兵自繞。遜督促諸軍四面蹙之，土崩瓦解，死者萬數。備因夜遁，驛人自擔，燒鐃鎧斷後， ...) Sanguozhi vol. 58.