Pompeii and Herculaneum were once thriving towns, 2,000 years ago, in the Bay of Naples. Both cities have rich histories influenced by Greeks, Oscans, Etruscans, Samnites and finally the Romans. They are most renowned for their destruction: both were buried in the AD 79 eruption of Mount Vesuvius. For over 1,500 years, these cities were left in remarkable states of preservation underneath volcanic ash, mud and rubble. The eruption obliterated the towns but in doing so, was the cause of their longevity and survival over the centuries.
For both cities, however, excavation has brought with it deterioration. Both natural forces and human activity (whether accidental or deliberate) have played their part in the slow disintegration of the sites. Many agents of deterioration play a role in these conservation issues. Paintings being exposed to light, buildings being worn away by natural forces and water damage due to inappropriate excavation and reconstruction methods, as well as theft and vandalism all play a part in the slow decline of the sites' integrity. As stated by Henri de Saint-Blanquat:
The ancient city was included in the 1996 World Monuments Watch by the World Monuments Fund, and again in 1998 and in 2000. In 1996, the organization claimed that Pompeii "desperately need[ed] repair" and called for the drafting of a general plan of restoration and interpretation.World Monuments Fund, List of 100 Most Endangered Sites - 1996 , New York, NY: 1996, p. 31.] In order to effectively establish widespread conservation efforts across both sites, the Packard Humanities Institute in collaboration with a "Soprintendenza," a branch of the Ministry of Culture (Italy), organized private-public partnership to subsidize and contract restorative projects.
Problems of Conservation While the excavation of the cities has led to a wealth of information on the two towns and on Roman life in general, it has also allowed the sites to be exposed to common agents of deterioration. Some of the damage is inevitable, however, much of it can be mitigated through conservative and restorative intervention. Unfortunately, funding is in such a state that not everything can be saved. An estimated US$335 million is needed to carry out all the works necessary in Pompeii alone.
Weathering and Erosion Pompeii and Herculaneum have been excavated for centuries. Serious excavations began in Herculaneum by 1738 as a result of the accidental discovery of four statues at the dig site of well in 1711, and later in 1748. The statues, Hercules and the Vestal Virgins captured the imaginations of the general populace, and soon excavations with the intent to find more art had begun. Unfortunately, early excavations weren't undertaken with care, and the removal of the layer of ash, mud, and rubble that protected the artifacts and the city beneath resulted in immediate deterioration. The eruption had disrupted many of the building's foundations, while initial excavations left them unstable and vulnerable, and exposing them further to the elements exacerbated the deterioration process. Many structures, such as the town wall of Pompeii have had their structural integrity compromised. Walls have partially collapsed and much of the site is closed to visitors because of the danger it poses to them.
The artifacts found on-site are also susceptible to these agents of deterioration, mainly air, humidity, natural light, and climatic changes. In Herculaneum, the carbonized remains of objects once exposed deteriorated within days. Only when a protective agent (lampblack) was applied were they able to survive in the open. In Herculaneum, the skeletal remains of 300 humans were found along the ancient shoreline left exposed to the elements, due to a lack of funding, they are at risk of further deterioration. While some of the damage is irreparable, the issues of funding and threat mitigation have prompted conservation and restoration specialists to reexamine and enact proper protocol in order to prevent future harm to the objects and the site itself
Light Exposure The frescoes, sculptures, and paintings prevalent in both towns were highly preserved, retaining a large amount of detail, color, and vibrancy as a result of the thick layer of ash that covered them from the eruption. Unfortunately, on excavation, they began to fade due to exposure to air and natural light as that protective layer of ash was removed. Worse, they began to crumble as well as pull away from the walls they were adhered to. However, these issues can be resolved through simple conservation techniques: earlier organic methods of preservation proved effective, and a more modern method using aluminum and plastic has seen even better results. In addition, detailed reproductions have been made of many of the artworks, such as the Alexander Mosaic in the House of the Faun.
Not all actions taken to preserve structures and artifacts have been effective, however, and some have caused more damage. For example, perspex cases have been constructed to protect frescoes and graffiti, however, this creates a humidity trap and causes damage to the plaster.
Plants and Animals The region of Campania in which both sites lie is very temperate and fertile, in part due to the volcanic ash, so many plants thrive even inside the archaeological site. Henri de Saint-Blanquat identifies thirty-one plants in Pompeii, which, after growing in patches of bare earth, grow outward and attack the surrounding buildings, as well as dislodging tiles and mosaics. In particular, ivy grows along the walls, making parts crumble, and the roots undermine the foundations of the buildings. Another problem the sites face is the passage of seeds in regions traversed by tourists. Their feet trample the plants; in closed-off areas, particularly those closest to unexcavated parts of the cities, and carry the seeds around the site causing growth in various areas—this can severely damage the buildings.
Feral dogs were particularly an issue in Pompeii. The dogs which occupied buildings around the Forum in the 1980s have been removed. Hundreds lived on the site, inadvertently damaging footpaths, roads and walls, as well as proving aggressive towards some tourists.
In Herculaneum, pigeons are a particular problem; the acidic nature of their feces wears away the roofs and walls of many structures. Italian law prohibits them from being shot.
Human Activity Early Excavations Particularly in Herculaneum, the earliest excavations revolved around collecting valuable artifacts and antiquities rather than systematic excavation. By merely digging for objects with aesthetic and commercial value, they were taken from being in situ to private collections. Thus much of the information on them was lost. Additionally, objects not considered worthy by pursuers of Antiquarianism were destroyed or damaged in the process of retrieving other items.
These valuable objects, once discovered, were also disorganized and lost all historical meaning: a collection of bronze letters fixed initially on a wall in Herculaneum, once removed by the Bourbon kings, were taken out of order without recording the original placement or meaning. Visitors were invited to re-arrange them to form their own messages. A similar usage was made of bones: they would often be arranged together as composites of bones of several individuals, even combining those of children with adults and giving some two left feet. These would then be displayed for dramatic effect. Some of these remain today, but there is little hope of reforming the original skeletons or using them to discover information on Pompeii or Herculaneum's inhabitants.
Gallery of Luigi Bazzani's Watercolors of Pompeii when first excavated (See more on Wikimedia Commons)
Reconstruction Efforts Amedeo Maiuri, director of Pompeii and Herculaneum from 1924 to 1961, was intent on re-creating the "atmosphere" of the two towns as they were before the eruption of Mt. Vesuvius. Though some directors before him had taken limited steps towards this, Maiuri was motivated to reconstruct much of the two towns' infrastructure. This meant rebuilding walls and roofs that the eruption had knocked down to reproduce the towns' facade. The rebuilding was particularly important in Pompeii, where the explosions destroyed the roofs and anything more than two meters above ground level.
The materials used in this reconstruction were mainly concrete and steel. The mix of the cement was harmful to the original construction in multiple locations. The alkaline in the masonry reacted with the original building materials, causing crumbling and erosion to walls of structures (as seen at the House of the Coloured Capitals) and peeling of the original pigments.
After the 1980s, the materials used in reconstruction were replaced by modern alternatives which would not react adversely with the original structures and artworks. The old reconstructions are being gradually replaced. However, the damage has already been done in many places. As a result, mitigative replacement endeavors will take many more years to complete.
Tourism Tourism has created positive and negative effects for the site. As there are 2.5 million visitors to both cities every year, their presence allows for education on the site's conservation issues. Additionally, a law was passed in Italy in 1997, which allowed for all money raised from these tourists to help with the site's conservation.
However, the massive number of tourists also causes many problems. The general movement of them causes the gradual wearing down of the roads and pavements, particularly in the more frequented areas like the Pompeiian Forum complex. Tourists also might take chips of rock or stone from the site and accidentally brush against the walls and frescoes, further increasing their rate of deterioration. The open nature of both locations to tourists is also a leading cause of vandalism and theft.
Vandalism Vandalism, particularly graffiti, is a problematic issue for Pompeii and Herculaneum. Tourists and others often break off parts of the city's structures to take home as mementos or souvenirs. Graffiti appears inscribed in the walls (often alongside their ancient counterparts) as well as on paintings and frescoes, particularly the less damaged or unsullied works of art.
An example of vandalism occurred in June 2024 when a 27-year-old tourist from the Netherlands damaged the stucco wall of an excavated Herculaneum villa with a graffiti signature in black permanent marker. The tourist was reprimanded and charged with damage to and defacement of an artistic work.
War