In religion, a prophet or prophetess is an individual who is regarded as being in contact with a divine being and is said to be a conduit for that being, serving as an intermediary with humanity by delivering messages or teachings from the supernatural source to other people. The message that the prophet conveys is called a prophecy.
Prophethood has existed in many cultures and religions throughout history, including Mesopotamian religion, Zoroastrianism, Buddhism, the Abrahamic religions, Mandaeism, Manichaeism, and Thelema.
Etymology The English word prophet is the transliteration of a compound Greek word derived from (before/toward) and (to tell); thus, a () is someone who conveys messages from the divine to humans, including occasionally foretelling future events. In a different interpretation, it means advocate or speaker.
It is used to translate the Hebrew word () in the Septuagint and the Arabic word () in the Quran. W. F. Albright points to the Akkadian god Nabu ( ) for the origin of these words. means "announcer" or "authorised person", derived from the Semitic root or . It is cognate with , , and ,Alcalay, p. 1571. An alternative translation of this Hebrew word is derived from an Akkadian word , meaning 'to call'. The Hebrew has a passive sense and means "the one who has been called" (see HALOT, p.661). all meaning 'prophet'.
In Hebrew, the word (), "spokesperson", traditionally translates as "prophet". The second subdivision of the Tanakh, , is devoted to the Hebrew prophets. The meaning of is perhaps described in Deuteronomy 18:18, where God says, "... and I will put My words in his mouth, and he shall speak unto them all that I shall command him." Thus, a was thought to be the "mouth" of God. A Jewish tradition was that the root () is based on the two-letter root which denotes hollowness or openness; to receive transcendental wisdom, one must make oneself "open".Rashbam's comment to Genesis 20:7.
Mesopotamian origins
Before the advent of Zoroastrianism and the prophetic tradition established by Zoroaster, various ancient civilizations had individuals who served as intermediaries between humanity and the divine. In ancient Sumer, for instance, figures such as the "ensi" or "lugal" fulfilled roles akin to prophets, offering guidance and interpreting divine will through rituals, omens, and prayers. The ensi was considered a representative of the city-state's patron deity. The functions of a would include certain ceremonial and cultic activities, arbitration in border disputes, and military defence against external enemies.Plamen Rusev, Mesalim, Lugal Na Kish: Politicheska Istoriia Na Ranen Shumer (XXVIII-XXVI V. Pr. N. E.), Faber, 2001 (in Bulgarian) Mesalim, Lugal of Kish. Political History of Early Sumer (XXVIII–XXVI century BC.) The ensis of Lagash would sometimes refer to the city's patron deity, Ningirsu, as their ("master"). All of the above is connected to the possibly priestly or sacral character of the titles ensiGlassner, Jean-Jacques, 2000: Les petits etats Mésopotamiens à la fin du 4e et au cours du 3e millénaire. In: Hansen, Mogens Herman (ed.) A Comparative Study of Thirty City-State Cultures. The Royal Danish Academy of Sciences and Letters, Copenhagen., P.48 and especially en (the latter term continuing to designate priests in subsequent times).
These prophets, while lacking the systematic theological framework found in later traditions, laid the groundwork for the concept of prophethood by demonstrating a connection with the divine and providing spiritual leadership within their communities. Despite the absence of codified scripture or organized religious institutions, these pre-Zoroastrian prophetic figures played a crucial role in shaping early religious thought and practices, paving the way for the structured prophetic tradition that emerged with Zoroaster and subsequent religious traditions.
Zoroastrianism
Zoroastrianism holds a significant position in shaping the concept of prophets and prophecy. Founded by the revered figure Zoroaster (or Zarathustra) in ancient Persia around the 6th century BCE, Zoroastrianism introduced fundamental ideas that profoundly influenced subsequent religious and philosophical traditions, particularly in its portrayal of prophetic figures.
At the heart of Zoroastrian belief lies the concept of a singular supreme deity, Ahura Mazda, engaged in an eternal struggle against the forces of darkness and chaos, embodied by Angra Mainyu. Zoroaster, as the primary prophet of this faith, received divine revelations and visions from Ahura Mazda, which formed the basis of the Avesta, the sacred scripture of Zoroastrianism.
Zoroaster's role as a prophet established a template for future religious leaders and visionaries. He articulated monotheistic principles, ethical dualism, and the idea of a cosmic battle between good and evil, influencing not only the religious landscape of ancient Persia but also later traditions such as Judaism, Christianity, Islam, and Thelema.
The legacy of Zoroastrianism in shaping the understanding of prophets is profound. Zoroaster's direct communication with the divine, his role as a mediator between humanity and the divine will, and his teachings about moral righteousness laid the groundwork for the concept of prophethood as it evolved in subsequent religious traditions.
Influence from Zoroastrian thought can be seen in the characterization of prophets as individuals chosen by a single supreme deity to convey divine messages, guide communities, and uphold moral principles. The structured prophetic tradition established by Zoroaster set a precedent for future prophets, shaping how societies perceive and interact with visionary figures throughout history.
While other ancient civilizations may have had individuals who served similar functions, Zoroastrianism's systematic approach to prophecy and its enduring influence on subsequent religious thought solidified its place in history as a foundational example of prophetic tradition, enriching humanity's understanding of the divine and the role of prophets in conveying its will.
Judaism
Some examples of prophets in the Tanakh include Abraham, Moses, Miriam, Isaiah, Samuel, Ezekiel, Malachi, and Job. Moses is considered the most important prophet in Judaism.. On one occasion during the Exodus journey, "the spirit which was upon Moses" was passed to seventy elders, who were also able to prophesy for one time only, but mostly they could not prophesy again. Moses expressed the hope that "all the 's people" could be prophets. In addition to writing and speaking messages from God, Israelite or Judean ("spokespersons", "prophets") often acted out prophetic parables in their life. For example, in order to contrast the people's disobedience with the obedience of the Rechabites, God has Jeremiah invite the Rechabites to drink wine, in disobedience to their ancestor's command. The Rechabites refuse, for which God commends them.Jeremiah 35:13–16, The Jewish Study Bible, Oxford University Press, 2004Commentary on Jeremiah 35, The Jewish Study Bible, Oxford University Press, 2004 Other prophetic parables acted out by Jeremiah include burying a linen belt so that it gets ruined to illustrate how God intends to ruin Judah's pride.Jeremiah 13, The Jewish Study Bible, Oxford University Press, 2004Commentary on Jeremiah 13, The Anchor Bible, Doubleday, 1984Jeremiah, Lamentations, Tremper Longman, Hendrickson Publishers, 2008. Likewise, Jeremiah buys a clay jar and smashes it in the Valley of Ben Hinnom in front of elders and priests to illustrate that God will smash the nation of Judah and the city of Judah beyond repair.Jeremiah 19, The Jewish Study Bible, Oxford University Press, 2004 God instructs Jeremiah to make a yoke from wood and leather straps and to put it on his own neck to demonstrate how God will put the nation under the yoke of Nebuchadnezzar, king of Babylon.Jeremiah 27–28, The Jewish Study Bible, Oxford University Press, 2004 In a similar way, the prophet Isaiah had to walk stripped and barefoot for three years to illustrate the coming captivity,Isaiah 20, The Jewish Study Bible, Oxford University Press, 2004 and the prophet Ezekiel had to lie on his side for 390 days and to eat measured food to illustrate the coming siege.Ezekiel 4, The Jewish Study Bible, Oxford University Press, 2004
Prophetic assignment is usually portrayed as rigorous and exacting in the Hebrew Bible,Commentary on Jeremiah, The Jewish Study Bible, Oxford University Press, 2004Isaiah (Commentary), John Goldingay, Hendrickson, 2001Commentary on Isaiah 6:8–13, The Jewish Study Bible, Oxford University Press, 2004 and prophets were often the target of persecution and opposition."Jeremiah (Prophet)", The Anchor Bible Dictionary, vol. 3, Doubleday, 1992 God's personal prediction for Jeremiah, "And they shall fight against thee; but they shall not prevail against thee",Jeremiah 1:19 was performed many times in the biblical narrative as Jeremiah warned of destruction of those who continued to refuse repentance and accept more moderate consequences.Jeremiah, Lamentations, F. B. Huey, Broadman Press, 1993 In return for his adherence to God's discipline and speaking God's words, Jeremiah was attacked by his own brothers,Jeremiah 12:6, The Jewish Study Bible, Oxford University Press, 2004 beaten and put into the stocks by a priest and false prophet,Jeremiah 20:1–4, The Jewish Study Bible, Oxford University Press, 2004The NIV Study Bible, Zondervan, 1995, p. 1501 imprisoned by the king,Jeremiah 37:18, Jeremiah 38:28, The Jewish Study Bible, Oxford University Press, 2004 threatened with death,Jeremiah 38:4, The Jewish Study Bible, Oxford University Press, 2004 thrown into a cistern by Judah's officials,Jeremiah 38:6, The Jewish Study Bible, Oxford University Press, 2004 and opposed by a false prophet.Jeremiah 28, The Jewish Study Bible, Oxford University Press, 2004 Likewise, Isaiah was told by his hearers who rejected his message, "Leave the way! Get off the path! Let us hear no more about the Holy One of Israel!"Isaiah 30:11, The Jewish Study Bible, Oxford University Press, 2004 The life of Moses being threatened by Pharaoh is another example.Exodus 2, Exodus 10:28, The Jewish Study Bible, Oxford University Press, 2004
According to I Samuel 9:9,, Hebrew – English Bible the old name for is , which literally means "seer". That could document an ancient shift, from viewing prophets as seers for hire to viewing them as moral teachers. L. C. Allen (1971) comments that in the First Temple Era, there were essentially seer-priests belonging to a guild, who performed divination, rituals, and sacrifices, and were scribes; and beside these were canonical prophets, who did none of these things (and condemned divination), but came to deliver a message.Discussed more recently in Morris Silver (2013), Prophets and Markets: The Political Economy of Ancient Israel, Dordrecht, Netherlands: Springer Science and Business Media, 154–175. . The seer-priests were usually attached to a local shrine or temple, such as Shiloh, and initiated others into that priesthood, acting as a mystical craft-guild with apprentices and recruitment. Canonical prophets were not organised this way.
A Jewish tradition suggests that there were twice as many prophets as the number which left Egypt, which would make 1,200,000 prophets. The Talmud recognizes 48 male prophets who bequeathed permanent messages to humankind. According to the Talmud, there were also seven women counted as prophetesses whose message bears relevance for all generations: Sarah, Miriam, Devorah, Hannah (mother of the prophet Samuel), Abigail (a wife of King David), Huldah (from the time of Jeremiah), and Esther. The Talmudic and Biblical commentator Rashi points out that Rebecca, Rachel, and Leah were also prophets.Rashi on Genesis 29:34.