The Yellow Turban Rebellion (Chinese: 黃巾之亂; pinyin: Huángjīn zhī luàn), alternatively translated as the Yellow Scarves Rebellion, was a peasant revolt during the late Eastern Han dynasty of ancient China. The uprising broke out in 184 AD, during the reign of Emperor Ling. Although the main rebellion was suppressed by 185 AD, it took 21 years to fully subdue resisting areas and emerging rebellions, which was only achieved in 205 AD. The weakening of the imperial court and the rising political influence of autonomous regional military-governors, who helped suppress the rebellion, eventually led to rampant warlord dominance and the resultant Three Kingdoms period.
The rebellion, which took its name from the colour of the rebels' headwear ( jīn, defined as more of a scarf than a turban) marked an important point in the history of Taoism due to the rebel leaders' association with the then secret Taoist societies. The revolt was also used as the inciting event in the 14th-century historical novel Romance of the Three Kingdoms.
Background
By 184 AD, the Han Dynasty's central government was weakened by court eunuchs abusing their power over the emperor to enrich themselves. Twelve of the most powerful eunuchs were referred to as the Ten Attendants with Emperor Ling once claiming that "Regular Attendant Zhang Rang is my father and Regular Attendant Zhao Zhong is my mother". The government corruption was perceived as causing plagues, natural disasters, and poor agricultural yields, reflecting that the emperor had lost his Mandate of Heaven.
As flooding along the Yellow River forced farmers and military settlers south, the labor surplus incentivized exploitation. Disease outbreaks were reported in 171, 173, 179, 182, and 185 AD, with the potential cause theorized as the Antonine Plague of 165 to 181CE of smallpox or measles spreading along the Silk Road.
Through claims of providing curative water and bamboo playing, the Taoist leader Zhang Jue developed his initial following to send his disciples throughout northern China in preparation for a revolt. Their rapid rise was relatively unnoticed until they became too powerful to challenge. Zhang Jue intended to launch an uprising throughout the Han Empire, but the plan was betrayed before he was ready. Rebel sympathizers in Luoyang were arrested and executed, forcing a premature beginning in March 184. Despite the inevitable lack of co-ordination and overall preparation, tens of thousands of men rose in rebellion. Government offices were plundered and destroyed and the imperial armies were immediately forced on the defensive.
Rebels The rebellion was led by Zhang Jue (also referred to as Zhang Jiao, known to his followers as the "General of Heaven") and his two younger brothers Zhang Bao () and Zhang Liang (), who were born in Julu Commandery. The brothers had founded a Taoist religious sect in present-day Shandong, praised as healers who offered free care to impoverished patients. Recognizing how the local government abused the peasant class through harsh labor and heavy taxes, they plotted rebellion. Taoist sect The rebels were the first followers of the Way of Supreme Peace () and venerated the deity Huang–Lao, who according to Zhang Jue, had given him a sacred book called the Crucial Keys to the Way of Peace () based on the Taipingjing. Zhang Jue, who was said to be a sorcerer, called himself the "Great Teacher" (). When the rebellion was proclaimed on 4 March, Zhang Jue created a 16-word slogan spread through the brothers' medical work:(初，鉅鹿張角自稱「大賢良師」，奉事黃老道，畜養弟子，跪拜首過，符水咒說以療病，病者頗愈，百姓信向之。角因遣弟子八人使於四方，以善道教化天下，轉相誑惑。十餘年閒，眾徒數十萬，連結郡國，自青、徐、幽、冀、荊、楊、兗、豫八州之人，莫不畢應。遂置三十六方。方猶將軍號也。大方萬餘人，小方六七千，各立渠帥。訛言「蒼天已死，黃天當立，歲在甲子，天下大吉」。以白土書京城寺門及州郡官府，皆作「甲子」字。) Houhanshu vol. 71. Religious practices Zhang Jue claimed to cure patients by having them confess sins for Taoist faith healing. The Zhang brothers believed in an impending apocalyptic change in the jiazi year, the beginning of the new sexagenary cycle, involving yellow skies marking new governance, which inspired the color of their headwear.Generals of the South, Rafe de Crespigny (pp. 85–92) Through the sect's communal activities like trances, fasting, musical performances, chanting, incense burning, and sermons, followers united across ethnic and gender lines. Several Xiongnu leaders, such as Yufuluo, lent their support, potentially inspiring Zhang Jue to adopt their shamanistic beliefs.
Despite few surviving records, the early Path of Supreme Peace was likely similar to the Way of the Celestial Masters, considering that Zhang Jue claimed to be a descendant of Zhang Daoling. Much of the Taipingjing's surviving 52 chapters, found in the Daozang, have a direct relationship to the Way of the Celestial Masters with discrepancies potentially suppressed by later Taoists.
Zhang Jue's plans for rebellion
About a month before the rebellion, Zhang Jue ordered one of his advisors, Ma Yuanyi () to recruit followers from both Jing and Yang provinces and have them gather in Ye (present-day Linzhang County, Handan, Hebei and Anyang, Henan). Since Ma Yuanyi frequently made visits to the Han imperial capital of Luoyang (present-day Luoyang, Henan), he was able to persuade Feng Xu () and XU Feng (), two members of Emperor Ling's trusted eunuch faction, to secretly aid Zhang Jue while feigning loyalty to the Emperor. However, a few days before the rebellion was set to begin, the Yellow Turbans were suddenly betrayed. One of the Taiping Dao's founding members, Tang Zhou (), was excluded from further planning for reasons unknown, so he reported Ma Yuanyi to the proper authorities. Ma Yuanyi was later arrested and subsequently executed by dismemberment in Luoyang not too long after.(中平元年，大方馬元義等先收荊、楊數萬人，期會發於鄴。元義數往來京師，以中常侍封諝、徐奉等為內應，約以三月五日內外俱起。未及作亂，而張角弟子濟南唐周上書告之，於是車裂元義於洛陽。) Houhanshu vol. 71.
When Emperor Ling was notified of what Zhang Jue and the Taiping Dao was plotting, he ordered Zhou Bin (), Prefect of the Palace Parks (), to conduct an investigation and capture any co-conspirators that sided with Zhang Jue. Hundreds of people were arrested and executed during this time.(靈帝以周章下三公、司隸，使鉤盾令周斌將三府掾屬，案驗宮省直衛及百姓有事角道者，誅殺千餘人，推考冀州，逐捕角等。) Houhanshu vol. 71.
Yellow Rebellion When Zhang Jue heard that the Han government had learned about his plans to rebel, he quickly sent messengers to contact his allies throughout China and take action immediately. In March, Zhang Jue started the Yellow Turban Rebellion with roughly 360,000 followers wearing yellow headscarves or turbans.(中平元年春二月，鉅鹿人張角自稱「黃天」，其部師有三十六萬，皆著黃巾，同日反叛。安平、甘陵人各執其王以應之。) Houhanshu vol. 8. He called himself the "Lord General of Heaven" (), while his brothers Zhang Bao and Zhang Liang were called the "Lord General of Earth" () and "Lord General of Man" (), respectively. The rebels attacked government offices, pillaged villages, and seized control of commanderies. Within 10 days, the rebellion had spread throughout China, alarming the Han imperial court in Luoyang.角等知事已露，晨夜馳敕諸方，一時俱起。皆著黃巾為摽幟，角稱「天公將軍」，角弟寶稱「地公將軍」，寶弟梁稱「人公將軍」，所在燔燒官府，劫略聚邑，州郡失據，長吏多逃亡。旬日之閒，天下嚮應，京師震動。) Houhanshu vol. 71.
The rebels were mostly concentrated in the Ji, Jing, You and Yu provinces. The group led by Zhang Jue and his brothers gained their support in Ji Province, located just north of the Yellow River, near Zhang Jue's home territory of Julu Commandery (around present-day Pingxiang County, Hebei) and Wei Commandery (around present-day Handan, Hebei). A second major uprising took place in Guangyang Commandery (around present-day Beijing) and Zhuo Commandery (around present-day Zhuozhou, Hebei) in You Province. The third centre of the rebellion was in Yingchuan Commandery (around present-day Xuchang, Henan) and Runan Commandery (around present-day Xinyang, Henan) in Yu Province, and Nanyang Commandery (around present-day Nanyang, Henan) in northern Jing Province.
On 1 April 184, Emperor Ling appointed his brother-in-law He Jin, the Intendant of Henan (), as General-in-Chief () and ordered him to supervise the imperial armies in suppressing the rebellion.(三月戊申，以河南尹何進為大將軍，將兵屯都亭。) Houhanshu vol. 8. Emperor Ling also appointed three generals – Lu Zhi, Huangfu Song and Zhu Jun – to lead three separate armies to deal with the rebels with a total of roughly 40,000 troops.(於是發天下精兵，博選將帥，以嵩為左中郎將，持節，與右中郎將朱雋，共發五校、三河騎士及募精勇，合四萬餘人，嵩、雋各統一軍，共討潁川黃巾。) Houhanshu vol. 71. Lu Zhi went for Zhang Jue's base in Ji Province, while Huangfu Song and Zhu Jun headed to Yingchuan Commandery.(遣北中郎將盧植討張角，左中郎將皇甫嵩、右中郎將朱雋討潁川黃巾。) Houhanshu vol. 8.
You Province: Guangyang and Zhuo commanderies In You Province, the rebels killed Guo Xun (), the provincial Inspector, and Liu Wei (), the Administrator of Guangyang Commandery.(廣陽黃巾殺幽州刺史郭勳及太守劉衛。) Houhanshu vol. 8.
Zou Jing, a colonel, led imperial forces to eliminate the rebels in You Province. Liu Bei led a group of volunteers to assist him so.(靈帝末，黃巾起，州郡各舉義兵，先主率其屬從校尉鄒靖討黃巾賊有功，除安喜尉。) Sanguozhi vol. 32.
Yu Province: Runan and Yingchuan commanderies When the rebellion first broke out in Yu Province, the Han imperial court specially selected Wang Yun to be the inspector of the province to oversee the military operations.(中平元年，黃巾賊起，特選拜豫州刺史。 ... 討擊黃巾別帥，大破之，與左中郎將皇甫嵩、右中郎將朱雋等受降數十萬。於賊中得中常侍張讓賓客書疏，與黃巾交通，允具發其姦，以狀聞。靈帝責怒讓，讓叩頭陳謝，竟不能罪之。) Houhanshu vol. 66.
Zhao Qian (), the administrator of Runan Commandery, led his troops to attack the rebels before Zhu Jun arrived, but was defeated at Shaoling (; in present-day southeastern Henan).(汝南黃巾敗太守趙謙於邵陵。) Houhanshu vol. 8. When Chen County (; present-day Huaiyang County, Henan) was under attack by the rebels, seven of Zhao Qian's subordinates, who were non-military personnel, armed themselves with swords and attempted to fight the rebels but were all killed. Later, after the rebellion was suppressed, Emperor Ling issued an edict to honor the seven as the "Seven Virtuous" ().(忠子祕，為郡門下議生。黃巾起，祕從太守趙謙擊之，軍敗，祕與功曹封觀等七人以身扞刃，皆死於陳，謙以得免。詔祕等門閭號曰「七賢」。) Houhanshu vol. 45.(謝承書曰「秘字永寧。封觀與主簿陳端、門下督范仲禮、賊曹劉偉德、主記史丁子嗣、記室史張仲然、議生袁秘等七人擢刃突陳，與戰並死」也。) Annotation from Xie Cheng's Houhanshu in (Fan Ye's) Houhanshu vol. 45.
Chen State (; around present-day Zhoukou, Henan), one of the commanderies in Yu Province, avoided the Yellow Turban Rebellion's bloodshed because the rebels feared Prince Liu Chong, famous for his unit of skilled archers.(中平中，黃巾賊起，郡縣皆棄城走，寵有彊弩數千張，出軍都亭。國人素聞王善射，不敢反叛，故陳獨得完，百姓歸之者眾十餘萬人。) Houhanshu vol. 76.
The rebels in Runan Commandery, led by Bo Cai (), initially defeated Zhu Jun in battle and drove him back. The imperial court sent a cavalry contingent, led by young officer Cao Cao (), as reinforcements for Zhu Jun.(會帝遣騎都尉曹操將兵適至，嵩、操與朱雋合兵更戰，大破之，斬首數萬級。) Houhanshu vol. 71. Sometime between 28 May and 25 June, Zhu Jun, Huangfu Song, and Cao Cao joined forces to defeat Bo Cai at Changshe (; east of present-day Changge, Henan).(朱雋為黃巾波才所敗。 ... 五月，皇甫嵩、朱雋復與波才等戰於長社，大破之。) Houhanshu vol. 8.(雋前與賊波才戰，戰敗，嵩因進保長社。波才引大眾圍城，嵩兵少，軍人皆恐，乃召軍吏謂曰：「兵有奇變，不在眾寡。今賊依草結營，易為風火。若因夜縱燒，必大驚亂。吾出兵擊之，四面俱合，田單之功可成也。」其夕遂大風，嵩乃約敕軍士皆束苣乘城，使銳士閒出圍外，縱火大呼，城上舉燎應之，嵩因鼓而奔其陳，賊驚亂奔走。 ... ) Houhanshu vol. 71. While Bo Cai attempted to flee, Huangfu Song and Zhu Jun pursued him to Yangzhai County (陽翟縣; present-day Yuzhou, Henan) and defeated him again, causing the rebels to scatter.
Huangfu Song and Zhu Jun then defeated the rebels in Runan Commandery, led by Peng Tuo (), at Xihua County (; south of present-day Xihua County, Henan).(嵩、雋乘勝進討汝南、陳國黃巾，追波才於陽翟，擊彭脫於西華，並破之。餘賊降散，三郡悉平。) Houhanshu vol. 71. The imperial court ordered them to split up: Huangfu Song would attack the rebels at Dong Commandery (東郡; around present-day Puyang County, Henan), while Zhu Jun would attack the rebels at Nanyang Commandery.(皇甫嵩、朱雋大破汝南黃巾於西華。詔嵩討東郡，朱雋討南陽。) Houhanshu vol. 8. During this time, Wang Yun, the Inspector of Yu Province, found evidence that the rebels had been secretly maintaining contact with Zhang Rang (), the leader of the eunuch faction in Luoyang, so he reported it to Emperor Ling, who scolded Zhang Rang but did not punish him.