Dravidian architecture, or the Southern Indian temple style, is an architectural style in Hindu temple architecture that emerged from Southern India, reaching its final form by the sixteenth century.
In contrast with North Indian temple styles, Dravidian architecture uses shorter and more pyramidal towers, called vimana, over the garbhagriha or sanctuary, where the north has taller towers, usually curving inwards as they rise, called shikharas. Larger modern Dravidian style temples, however, include one or more high gopura or gatehouse entrances to the compound as their dominating feature; large temples have several dwarfing the vimana, although these are a much more recent development. There are numerous other distinct features, such as the dvarapalakas – twin guardians at the main entrance and the inner sanctum of the temple, and goshtams – deities carved in niches on the outer side walls of the garbhagriha.
Mentioned as one of three styles of temple building in early texts on vastu shastra or Hindu temple architecture, the majority of existing structures are in the Southern Indian states of Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka, Kerala, Tamil Nadu, Telangana, some parts of Maharashtra, Odisha and Sri Lanka. Various kingdoms and empires such as the Satavahanas, the Vakatakas of Vidarbha, the Cholas, the Cheras, the Kakatiyas, the Reddis, the Pandyas, the Pallavas, the Gangas, the Kadambas, the Rashtrakutas, the Chalukyas, the Hoysalas and Vijayanagara Empire among others have made substantial contribution to the evolution of Dravidian architecture.
History Mayamata and Manasara shilpa texts, which are estimated to have been in circulation by 5th to 7th century CE, is a guidebook on Dravidian style of vastu shastra design, construction, sculpture and joinery technique.Stella Kramrisch (1976), The Hindu Temple Volume 1 & 2, Tillotson, G. H. R. (1997). Svastika Mansion: A Silpa-Sastra in the 1930s. South Asian Studies, 13(1), pp 87-97 Isanasivagurudeva paddhati is another text from the 9th century describing the art of building in India in south and central India.Ganapati Sastri (1920), Īśānaśivagurudeva paddhati, Trivandrum Sanskrit Series, In north India, Brihat-samhita by Varāhamihira is the widely cited ancient Sanskrit manual from 6th century describing the design and construction of Nagara style of Hindu temples.Heather Elgood (2000), Hinduism and the religious arts, , Bloomsbury Academic, pp 121-125H Kern (1865), The Brhat Sanhita of Varaha-mihara, The Asiatic Society of Bengal, Calcutta Traditional Dravidian architecture and symbolism are also based on Agamas. The Agamas are non-vedic in originMudumby Narasimhachary (Ed) (1976). Āgamaprāmāṇya of Yāmunācārya, Issue 160 of Gaekwad's Oriental Series. Oriental Institute, Maharaja Sayajirao University of Baroda. and have been dated either as post-vedic texts or as pre-vedic compositions.Nagalingam, Pathmarajah (2009). The Religion of the Agamas. Siddhanta Publications. The Agamas are a collection of Tamil and Sanskrit scriptures chiefly constituting the methods of temple construction and creation of murti, worship means of deities, philosophical doctrines, meditative practices, attainment of sixfold desires and four kinds of yoga.Grimes, John A. (1996). A Concise Dictionary of Indian Philosophy: Sanskrit Terms Defined in English. State University of New York Press. . LCCN 96012383.
Composition and structure Chola style temples consist almost invariably of the three following parts, arranged in differing manners, but differing in themselves only according to the age in which they were executed: The pavilions, porches, or Mandapas, which always cover and precede the door leading to the cell. Gate-pyramids, Gopuras, which are the principal features in the quadrangular enclosures that surround the more notable temples. Gopuras are very common in Dravidian temples. Pillared halls (Chaultris or Chawadis; may also be referred to as Mandapas,) are used for many purposes and are the invariable accompaniments of these temples.
Besides these, a South Indian temple usually has a tank called the Kalyani or Pushkarni – to be used for sacred purposes or the convenience of the priests – dwellings for all the grades of the priesthood are attached to it, and other buildings for state or convenience.
Influence from different periods
In Southern India seven kingdoms and empires stamped their influence on architecture during different times:
Sangam period From 300 BCE to 300 CE, the greatest accomplishments of the kingdoms of the early Chola, Chera and the Pandyan kingdoms included brick shrines to deities Vishnu, Kartikeya, Shiva, and Amman . Several of these have been unearthed near Adichanallur, Kaveripoompuharpattinam and Mahabalipuram, and the construction plans of these sites of worship were shared to some detail in various poems of Sangam literature. There are 3 temples which date around 5 CE to 5 BCE, The Srirangam Ranganathaswamy Temple which has inscriptions dating around 100 BCE to 100 CE. Hence, "making it one of the oldest surviving active temple complexes in South India". Another such temple is the Subrahmanya Temple, Saluvankuppam, unearthed in 2005, consists of three layers. The lowest layer, consisting of a brick shrine, is one of the oldest of its kind in South India, and is the oldest shrine found dedicated to Murukan. It is one of only two brick shrine pre Pallava Hindu temples to be found in the state, the other being the Veetrirundha Perumal Temple at Veppathur dedicated to Lord Vishnu. The dynasties of early medieval Tamilakkam expanded and erected structural additions to many of these brick shrines. Sculptures of erotic art, nature and deities from the Ranganathaswamy Temple and Kallazhagar Temple date from the Sangam period.
Pallavas
The Pallavas ruled from 275 CE to 900 CE, and their greatest constructed accomplishments are the single rock temples in Mahabalipuram and their capital Kanchipuram, now located in Tamil Nadu.
The earliest examples of Pallava constructions are rock-cut temples dating from 610 to 690 CE and structural temples between 690 and 900 CE. The greatest accomplishments of the Pallava architecture are the rock-cut Group of Monuments at Mahabalipuram at Mahabalipuram, a UNESCO World Heritage Site, including the Shore Temple. This group includes both excavated pillared halls, with no external roof except the natural rock, and monolithic shrines where the natural rock is entirely cut away and carved to give an external roof. Early temples were mostly dedicated to Shiva. The Kailasanatha temple also called Rajasimha Pallaveswaram in Kanchipuram built by Narasimhavarman II also known as Rajasimha is a fine example of the Pallava style temple.
Contrary to popular impression about the succeeding empire of the Cholas pioneering in building large temple complexes, it was the Pallavas who actually pioneered not only in making large temples after starting construction of rock cut temples without using mortar, bricks etc. Examples of such temples are the Thiruppadagam and Thiruooragam temples that have 28 and high images of Lord Vishnu in his manifestation as Pandavadhoothar and Trivikraman forms of himself. In comparison, the Siva Lingams in the Royal Temples of the Cholas at Thanjavur and Gangaikonda Cholapurams are 17 and high. Considering that the Kanchi Kailasanatha Temple built by Rajasimha Pallava was the inspiration for Raja Raja Chola's Brihadeeswara at Thanjavur, it can be safely concluded that the Pallavas were among the first emperors in India to build both large temple complexes and very large deities and idols Many of Vishnu temples at Kanchi built by the great Pallava emperors and indeed their incomparable Rathas and the Arjuna's penance Bas Relief (also called descent of the Ganga) are proposed UNESCO World Heritage Sites. The continuous Chola, Pallava and Pandiyan belt temples (along with those of the Adigaimans near Karur and Namakkal) like the Narasimhaswamy Temple, Namakkal, as well as the Sathyamurthi Perumal Temple in Pudukottai uniformly represent the pinnacle of the South Indian Style of Architecture that surpasses any other form of architecture prevalent between the Deccan Plateau and Kanyakumari. In the Telugu country the style was more or less uniformly conforming to the South Indian or Dravidian idiom of architecture.
Rashtrakutas
The Rashtrakutas who ruled the Deccan from Manyakheta, Karnataka in the period 753–973 CE built some of the finest Dravidian monuments at Ellora (the Kailasanatha temple), in the rock-cut architecture idiom, with a style showing influences from both north and south India. Some other fine monuments are the Jaina Narayana temple at Pattadakal and the Navalinga temples at Kuknur in Karnataka.
The Rashtrakuta contributions to art and architecture are reflected in the carved rock shrines at Ellora and Elephanta, situated in present-day Maharashtra. It is said that they altogether constructed 34 rock-cut shrines, but most extensive and sumptuous of them all is the Kailasanatha temple at Ellora. The temple is an extraordinary achievement of Dravidian art. The walls of the temple have marvellous sculptures from Hindu mythology including Ravana, Shiva and Parvathi while the ceilings have paintings.
These projects were commissioned by King Krishna I after the Rashtrakuta rule had spread into South India from the Deccan. The architectural style used was partly Dravidian. They do not contain any of the shikharas common to the Nagara style and were built on the same lines as the Virupaksha temple at Pattadakal in Karnataka.
Chalukyas
The Badami Chalukyas also called the Early Chalukyas, ruled from Badami, Karnataka in the period 543–753 CE and spawned the Vesara style called Badami Chalukya Architecture. The finest examples of their art are seen in Pattadakal, Aihole and Badami in northern Karnataka. Over 150 temples remain in the Malaprabha basin.
The most enduring legacy of the Chalukya dynasty is the architecture and art that they left behind. More than one hundred and fifty monuments attributed to the Badami Chalukya, and built between 450 and 700, remain in the Malaprabha basin in Karnataka.Over 125 temples exist in Aihole alone,
The rock-cut temples of Pattadakal, a UNESCO World Heritage Site, Badami, Aihole and Mahakuta are their most celebrated monuments. Two of the famous paintings at Ajanta cave no. 1, "The Temptation of the Buddha" and "The Persian Embassy" are attributed to them.The Badami Chalukya introduced in the western Deccan a glorious chapter alike in heroism in battle and cultural magnificence in peace said art critic K.V. Sounderrajan. They have influenced the architecture in Vengi and Gujarat- Dr. Suryanath U. Kamath (2001), A Concise History of Karnataka from pre-historic times to the present, Jupiter books, MCC (Reprinted 2002), p68 This is the beginning of Chalukya style of architecture and a consolidation of South Indian style.
The Western Chalukyas also called the Kalyani Chalukyas or Later Chalukyas ruled the deccan from 973 to 1180 CE from their capital Kalyani in modern Karnataka and further refined the Chalukyan style, called the Western Chalukya architecture. Over 50 temples exist in the Krishna River-Tungabhadra doab in central Karnataka. The Kasi Vishveshvara at Lakkundi, Mallikarjuna at Kuruvatii, Kalleshwara temple at Bagali and Mahadeva at Itagi are the finest examples produced by the Later Chalukya architects.