The history of Berlin traces back to the 12th century, when it emerged as a trading post. Over the centuries, Berlin grew in political and cultural significance, especially under the Hohenzollern dynasty, which elevated it to the capital of the Margraviate of Brandenburg in the 15th century and later the Kingdom of Prussia in 1701. The 18th and 19th centuries saw Berlin flourish as a centre of Enlightenment thought, industrialisation, and scientific innovation, culminating in its role as the capital of the German Empire in 1871. The early 20th century brought both cultural golden ages – notably during the Weimar Republic – and the devastations of World War II, during which Berlin suffered extensive bombing and the final Battle of Berlin in 1945.
After World War II, Berlin became a focal point of Cold War tensions, divided into East and West sectors by the victorious Allies. The construction of the Berlin Wall in 1961 physically and ideologically split the city, symbolising the broader division between communist and capitalist blocs. The fall of the Berlin Wall in 1989 marked a turning point, leading to German reunification in 1990 and the restoration of Berlin as the nation's capital and a major world city.
Etymology
The name Berlin is of Slavic origin, formed from a root *berl-/*brl-, enlarged by a suffix -in which is still common in modern Slavic languages. The meaning of the root is somewhat obscure, lacking clear cognates in other languages, but is usually interpreted as "bog, swamp", due to similar and obviously Slavic toponyms in Eastern Germany. As early sources mention the name with a definite article ("der Berlin"), it appears to have referred originally to a specific piece of land. Similar to other Slavic-derived German toponyms ending in -in, the name is consistently stressed on this suffix.
The name of the city's other historic kernel, Kölln, is likely derived from Cologne, called Köln in German, whose name ultimately stems from the Latin colonia "colony, new planned settlement". The prominent role of merchants from the Lower Rhine in the earliest days of the city makes this likely. A derivation from Slavic kol'no, related to a word meaning "stake, pale, post", cannot be completely excluded.
Contrary to folk etymology, the name is not related to bears (German sg. Bär), even though the city was allegedly founded by Albert the Bear, the first Margrave of Brandenburg. A relationship between Albert and the coat-of-arms (showing a bear) has not been reliably proven.
Prehistory The oldest human traces, mainly arrowheads, in the area of later Berlin are dating to the 9th millennium BC. During Neolithic times a large number of villages existed in the area. During the Bronze Age it belonged to the Lusatian culture. For the time around 500 BC the presence of Germanic tribes can be evidenced for the first time in form of a number of villages in the higher situated areas of today's Berlin. After the Semnones left around 200 AD, the Burgundians followed. A large part of the Germanic tribes left the region around 500 AD.
In the 7th century Slavic tribes, the later known Hevelli and Sprevane, reached the region. Today their traces can mainly be found at plateaus or next to waters. Their main settlements were today's Spandau and Köpenick. No Slavic traces could be found in the city center of Berlin.Horst Ulrich et al., Besiedlung des Berliner Raums, in: Berlin Handbuch (Berlin 1992), pp. 127–128.
Emerging city (1100–1400) In the 12th century, the region came under German rule as part of the Margraviate of Brandenburg, founded by Albert the Bear in 1157. At the end of the 12th century, German merchants founded two settlements in today's city center – Berlin (or Alt-Berlin; at the site of today's Nikolaiviertel) and Cölln (on the island in the Spree now known as Museum Island). It is unclear which settlement is older and when they got German town rights. The year 1237 was later taken as the year of founding as the first recorded mention of Cölln is from that year. The first mention of Berlin dates to 1244. Berlin is mentioned as a town for the first time in 1251 and Cölln in 1261.
The two settlements formally merged into the town of Berlin-Cölln in 1432. Albert the Bear also bequeathed to Berlin the emblem of the bear, which has appeared on its coat of arms ever since. By the year 1400 Berlin and Cölln had 8,000 inhabitants. A great town center fire in 1380 damaged most written records of those early years, as did the great devastation of the Thirty Years' War (1618–1648).Richie, Faust's Metropolis pp 41-50
Margraviate of Brandenburg (1400–1700)
In 1415, Frederick I became the elector of the Margraviate of Brandenburg, which he ruled until 1440. Subsequent members of the Hohenzollern family ruled until 1918 in Berlin, first as electors of Brandenburg, then as kings of Prussia, and finally as German emperors. When Berlin became the residence of the Hohenzollerns, it had to give up its Hanseatic League free city status. Its main economical activity changed from trade to the production of luxurious goods for the court.
1443 to 1451: The first Berliner Stadtschloss was built on the embankment of the river Spree. At that time Berlin-Cölln had about 8,000 inhabitants. Population figures rose fast, leading to poverty. 1448: The inhabitants of Berlin rebelled in the "Berlin Indignation" against the construction of a new royal palace by Elector Frederick II Irontooth. This protest was not successful, however, and the citizenry lost many of its political and economic privileges. 1451: Berlin became the royal residence of the Brandenburg electors, and Berlin had to give up its status as a free Hanseatic city. In 1510: 100 Jews were accused of stealing and desecrating hosts. 38 of them were burned to death; others were banished, losing their possessions, only to be returned by later margraves. 1530: The Tiergarten park began when Elector Joachim I donated the property for use as a royal game preserve; it was opened to the public in the mid-17th century; it ceased being a hunting park in 1740 when the job of redesigning it in the English landscape style began.Elizabeth Heekin Bartels, "Berlin's Tiergarten: Evolution of an Urban Park," Journal of Garden History (1982) 2#2 p143+ 1539: The electors and Berlin officially became Lutheran. 1540: Joachim II introduced the Protestant Reformation in Brandenburg and secularized church possessions. He used the money to pay for his projects, like building an avenue, the Kurfürstendamm, between his hunting castle Grunewald and his palace, the Berliner Stadtschloss. 1576, Bubonic plague killed about 6,000 people in the city. Around 1600: Berlin-Cölln had 12,000 inhabitants. 1618 to 1648: The Thirty Years' War had devastating consequences for Berlin. A third of the houses were damaged, and the city lost half of its population. 1640: Frederick William, known as the "Great Elector", succeeded his father George William as Elector of Brandenburg. Later he initiated a policy of promoting immigration and religious toleration. Over the following decades, Berlin expanded greatly in area and population with the founding of the new suburbs of Friedrichswerder and Dorotheenstadt. During his government Berlin reached 20,000 inhabitants and became significant among the cities in Central Europe for the first time. He also developed a standing army. 1647: The boulevard Unter den Linden with six rows of trees was laid down between the Tiergarten park and the Palace. 1671: Fifty Jewish families from Austria were given a home in Berlin. With the Edict of Potsdam in 1685, Frederick William invited the French Calvinist Huguenots to Brandenburg. More than 15,000 Huguenots came, of whom 6,000 settled in Berlin. By 1687 they comprise 20% of the population, and many were bankers, industrialists and investors.Alexandra Richie, Faust's Metropolis (1998) p 55 1674 and after: The Dorotheenstadt was built in a bow of the river Spree, north-west of the Spreeinsel (Spree Island), where the Palace was situated. 1688 and after: The Friedrichstadt was built and settled. Around 1700: Many refugees from Bohemia, Poland, and Salzburg had arrived.
Kingdom of Prussia (1701–1871)
In 1701, Elector Frederick III (1688–1701) crowned himself as Frederick I of Prussia (1701–1713) and made Berlin the capital of the new Kingdom of Prussia. He was mostly interested in decorum: he ordered the building of the castle Charlottenburg in the west of the city.Rudolf G. Scharmann, Charlottenburg Palace: Royal Prussia in Berlin (2005) In 1709, Berlin counted 55,000 inhabitants, of whom 5,000 served in the Prussian Army.
On 1 January 1710, the cities of Berlin, Cölln, Friedrichswerder, Dorotheenstadt, and Friedrichstadt were united as the "Royal Capital and Residence of Berlin", with 60,000 inhabitants. Berlin and Cölln are on both sides of the river Spree, in today's Mitte borough.
Prussian capital
As Prussia expanded, Berlin grew alongside it, becoming not only the administrative centre of the state but also a focal point for culture, the arts, and the military. During the reign of King Frederick William I of Prussia (1713–1740), the city's development was driven by his ambition to establish Prussia as a formidable military power. To meet the increasing demand for manpower, he encouraged the immigration of Protestants from across Germany, as well as from France and Switzerland. He also introduced universal primary education, ensuring that soldiers possessed basic literacy.
In 1720, he founded the city's first major hospital and medical school, the Charité, which has since become one of Europe's largest teaching hospitals. By this period, Berlin had largely assumed the character of a garrison town and armoury, as the crown heavily subsidised arms manufacturers in the capital. This policy laid the groundwork for the emergence of skilled mechanics, engineers, technicians, and entrepreneurs who would later transform Berlin into a major industrial centre.
The city's older defensive walls and moats had become obsolete and were consequently dismantled. In their place, a new customs wall – the Zoll- und Akzisemauer – was constructed further from the centre, marked by fourteen elaborately designed gates. Within these gates lay a series of parade grounds for Friedrich Wilhelm's troops, including the Karree at the Brandenburg Gate (now Pariser Platz), the Oktagon at the Potsdam Gate (now Leipziger Platz), and Wilhelmplatz on Wilhelmstrasse (removed in the 1980s), among others.
In 1740, Frederick the Great (Frederick II) began his 46-year reign. He was an enlightened monarch, who patronized Enlightenment thinkers like Moses Mendelssohn. By 1755 the population reached 100,000, including 26,000 soldiers. Stagnation followed under the rule of Frederick William II, 1786–97. He had no use for the Enlightenment, but did develop innovative techniques of censorship and repression of political enemies.