Guan Yu (; ), courtesy name Yunchang, was a military general under Liu Bei during the late Eastern Han dynasty. Together with Zhang Fei, he was among Liu Bei's earliest followers. After a brief period in Cao Cao's service in 200, during which he killed Yan Liang at the Battle of Boma, Guan Yu returned to Liu Bei. He later commanded Liu Bei's forces in Jing Province.
In 219, Guan Yu attacked Cao Cao's forces at Fancheng, defeated and captured Yu Jin, and killed Pang De. While the campaign continued, Sun Quan ended his alliance with Liu Bei and sent Lü Meng to seize Liu Bei's territories in Jing Province. Guan Yu withdrew, was captured by Sun Quan's forces, and was executed with his son Guan Ping in early 220.
Guan Yu was later worshipped in Chinese folk religion, Taoism, Chinese Buddhism, and popular Confucian traditions. Storytelling, drama, and the 14th-century novel Romance of the Three Kingdoms further developed his image as a model of loyalty and martial courage. In religious contexts he is commonly called "Lord Guan" (Guan Gong) or "Emperor Guan" (Guan Di).
Historical sources The authoritative historical source on Guan Yu's life is the Records of the Three Kingdoms written by Chen Shou in the third century. During the fifth century, Pei Songzhi annotated the Records of the Three Kingdoms by incorporating information from other sources into Chen Shou's original work and adding his personal comments. Some alternative texts used in the annotations to Guan Yu's biography include: Shu Ji (Records of Shu), by Wang Yin; Wei Shu (Book of Wei), by Wang Chen, Xun Yi and Ruan Ji; Jiang Biao Zhuan, by Yu Pu; Fu Zi, by Fu Xuan; Dianlüe, by Yu Huan; Wu Li (History of Wu), by Hu Chong; and Chronicles of Huayang, by Chang Qu.
Physical appearance
No explicit descriptions of Guan Yu's physical appearance exist in historical records. However, the Records of the Three Kingdoms recorded that Zhuge Liang once referred to Guan Yu as having a "peerless beard".
Traditionally, Guan Yu is portrayed as a red-faced warrior with a long, lush beard. The idea of his red face may have been derived from a description of him in Chapter 1 of the 14th-century historical novel Romance of the Three Kingdoms, where the following passage appears:RotK, "ch. 1". quote: ()
Alternatively, the idea of his red face could have been borrowed from opera representation, where red faces represented loyalty and righteousness. In illustrations of Romance of the Three Kingdoms, Guan Yu is traditionally depicted wearing a green robe over his body armour.
In Romance of the Three Kingdoms, Guan Yu's weapon was a guandao named Green Dragon Crescent Blade, which resembled a glaive and was said to weigh 82 catties (about ).RotK, ch. 1. quote: ()
Early life and career
Guan Yu was from Xie County (, also called Hai County), Hedong Commandery, which is present-day Yuncheng, Shanxi. His original courtesy name was Changsheng ().() Sanguozhi vol. 36. He was very studious, and was interested in the ancient history book Zuo zhuan and could fluently recite lines from it.() Sanguozhi vol. 54.() Jiang Biao Zhuan annotation in Sanguozhi vol. 36. He fled from his hometown for unknown reasons and went to Zhuo Commandery. When the Yellow Turban Rebellion broke out in the 180s, Guan Yu and Zhang Fei joined a volunteer militia formed by Liu Bei, and they assisted a colonel Zou Jing in suppressing the revolt.() Sanguozhi vol. 36.() Sanguozhi vol. 32. Guan Yu and Zhang Fei were known as stalwart and strong men, which made them talented fighters.(河東關羽雲長，同郡張飛益德，並以壯烈，禦侮。) Huayang Guo Zhi vol. 6.
When Liu Bei was appointed as the Minister () of Pingyuan, Guan Yu and Zhang Fei were appointed as Majors of Separate Command (), each commanding detachments of soldiers under Liu Bei. Liu Bei cherished them as if they were his own brothers and the three of them were as close as brothers to the point of sharing the same room, sleeping on the same mat and eating from the same pot.(先主與二子寢則同床，食則共器，恩若弟兄。然於稠人廣眾中，侍立終日。) Huayang Guo Zhi vol. 6. Zhang Fei and Guan Yu protected Liu Bei whenever there were large crowds of people and also stood guard beside him when he sat down at meetings all day long. For their military prowess, they were appraised as the "enemy of ten-thousand".() Sanguozhi vol. 14. Guan Yu was noted for his kindness towards his soldiers and fealty to Liu Bei akin to family, but had no respect for the gentry and treated them without courtesy.() Sanguozhi vol. 14.()Sanguozhi vol. 36.()Sanguozhi vol. 45.
Short service under Cao Cao
Background Liu Bei and his men followed Cao Cao back to the imperial capital Xu after their victory over Lü Bu at the Battle of Xiapi in 198. About a year later, Liu Bei and his followers escaped from Xu under the pretext of helping Cao Cao lead an army to attack Yuan Shu. Liu Bei went to Xu Province, killed the provincial inspector Che Zhou (), and seized control of the province. He moved to Xiaopei and left Guan Yu in charge of the provincial capital Xiapi.() Sanguozhi vol. 36.() Sanguozhi vol. 32.() Wei Shu annotation in Sanguozhi vol. 36.
In 200, Cao Cao led his forces to attack Liu Bei, defeated him and retook Xu Province. Liu Bei fled to northern China and found refuge under Cao Cao's rival Yuan Shao, while Guan Yu was captured by Cao Cao's forces and brought back to Xu. Cao Cao treated Guan Yu respectfully and asked Emperor Xian to appoint Guan Yu as a Lieutenant-General ().() Sanguozhi vol. 36.() Sanguozhi vol. 32.
Battle of Boma
Later that year, Yuan Shao sent his general Yan Liang to lead an army to attack Cao Cao's garrison at Boma (; near present-day Hua County, Henan), which was defended by Liu Yan (). Cao Cao sent Zhang Liao and Guan Yu to lead the vanguard to engage the enemy. In the midst of battle, Guan Yu recognised Yan Liang's parasol so he charged towards Yan Liang, decapitated him and returned with his head. Yan Liang's men could not stop him. With Yan Liang's death, the siege on Boma was lifted. On Cao Cao's recommendation, Emperor Xian awarded Guan Yu the peerage of "Marquis of Hanshou Village" ().() Sanguozhi vol. 36.
Leaving Cao Cao Although Cao Cao admired Guan Yu's character, he also sensed that Guan Yu had no intention of serving under him for long. He told Zhang Liao, "Why don't you make use of your friendship with Guan Yu to find out what he wants?" When Zhang Liao asked him, Guan Yu replied, "I am aware that Lord Cao treats me very generously. However, I have also received many favours from General Liu and I have sworn to follow him until I die. I cannot break my oath. I will leave eventually, so maybe you can help me convey my message to Lord Cao." Zhang Liao did so, and Cao Cao was even more impressed with Guan Yu.() Sanguozhi vol. 36. The Fu Zi gave a slightly different account of this incident. It recorded that Zhang Liao faced a dilemma of whether or not to convey Guan Yu's message to Cao Cao: if he did, Cao Cao might execute Guan Yu; if he did not, he would be failing in his service to Cao Cao. He sighed, "Lord Cao is my superior and he is like a father to me, while Guan Yu is like a brother to me." He eventually decided to tell Cao Cao. Cao Cao said, "A subject who serves his lord but doesn't forget his origins is truly a man of righteousness. When do you think he will leave?" Zhang Liao replied, "Guan Yu has received favours from Your Excellency. He will most probably leave after he has repaid your kindness."() Fu Zi annotation in Sanguozhi vol. 36.
After Guan Yu slew Yan Liang and lifted the siege on Baima, Cao Cao knew that he would leave soon so he gave Guan Yu greater rewards. Guan Yu sealed up all the gifts he received from Cao Cao, wrote a farewell letter, and headed towards Yuan Shao's territory to find Liu Bei. Cao Cao's subordinates wanted to pursue Guan Yu, but Cao Cao stopped them and said, "He's just doing his duty to his lord. There's no need to pursue him."() Sanguozhi vol. 36.
Pei Songzhi commented on this as follows: "Cao Cao admired Guan Yu's character even though he knew that Guan Yu would not remain under him. He did not send his men to pursue Guan Yu when Guan Yu left, so as to allow Guan Yu to fulfil his allegiance (to Liu Bei). If he was not as magnanimous as a great warlord should be, how would he allow this to happen? This was an example of Cao Cao's goodness."() Pei Songzhi's annotation in Sanguozhi vol. 36.
Returning to Liu Bei
When Cao Cao and Yuan Shao clashed at the Battle of Guandu in 200, Yuan sent Liu Bei to contact Liu Pi (), a Yellow Turban rebel chief in Runan (), and assist Liu Pi in attacking the imperial capital Xu while Cao Cao was away at Guandu. Guan Yu reunited with Liu Bei around this time. Liu Bei and Liu Pi were defeated by Cao Cao's general Cao Ren, after which Liu Bei returned to Yuan Shao. Liu Bei secretly planned to leave Yuan Shao, so he pretended to persuade Yuan Shao to form an alliance with Liu Biao, the Governor of Jing Province. Yuan Shao sent Liu Bei to contact another rebel leader, Gong Du (), in Runan, where they gathered a few thousand soldiers. Cao Cao turned back and attacked Runan after scoring a decisive victory over Yuan Shao at Guandu. Liu Bei fled south and found shelter under Liu Biao, who put him in charge of Xinye at the northern border of Jing Province. Guan Yu followed Liu Bei to Xinye.() Sanguozhi vol. 32.() Sanguozhi vol. 36.
Battle of Red Cliffs and aftermath
Liu Biao died in 208 and was succeeded by his younger son, Liu Cong, who surrendered Jing Province to Cao Cao when the latter started a campaign that year with the aim of wiping out opposing forces in southern China. Liu Bei evacuated Xinye together with his followers and they headed towards Xiakou, which was guarded by Liu Biao's elder son Liu Qi and independent of Cao Cao's control. Along the journey, Liu Bei divided his party into two groups – one led by Guan Yu which would sail along the river towards Jiangling; another led by Liu Bei which would travel on land. Cao Cao sent 5,000 elite cavalry to pursue Liu Bei's group and they caught up with them at Changban, where the Battle of Changban broke out. Liu Bei and his remaining followers managed to escape from Cao Cao's forces and reach Han Ford (), where Guan Yu's group picked them up and they sailed to Xiakou together.() Sanguozhi vol. 32.() Sanguozhi vol. 36.
In 208, Liu Bei allied with Sun Quan and they defeated Cao Cao at the decisive Battle of Red Cliffs. Cao Cao retreated north after his defeat and left Cao Ren behind to defend Jing Province.() Sanguozhi vol. 36. During the Battle of Jiangling, Guan Yu was stationed at the northern routes to block Cao Ren's supply lines via infiltration. Li Tong engaged Guan Yu, attempting to support Cao Ren's forces, but died from illness during the campaign.(刘备与周瑜围曹仁於江陵，别遣关羽绝北道。通率众击之，下马拔鹿角入围，且战且前，以迎仁军，勇冠诸将。通道得病薨，时年四十二。) Sanguozhi vol. 18. Xu Huang and Man Chong also engaged with Guan Yu in Hanjin () in order to support Cao Ren against Zhou Yu.(從征荊州，別屯樊，討中廬、臨沮、宜城賊。又與滿寵討關羽於漢津，與曹仁擊周瑜於江陵。) Sanguozhi vol. 17. Finally, Yue Jin, stationed in Xiangyang, defeated Guan Yu and Su Fei () and drove them away.() Sanguozhi vol. 17. After seizing and pacifying the various commanderies in southern Jing Province, Liu Bei appointed Guan Yu as the Administrator () of Xiangyang and General Who Defeats Bandits (), and ordered him to station at the north of the Yangtze River.
Guarding Jing Province Between 212 and 214, Liu Bei started a campaign to seize control of Yi Province from the provincial governor Liu Zhang. Most of Liu Bei's subordinates participated in the campaign, while Guan Yu remained behind to guard and oversee Liu Bei's territories in Jing Province.() Sanguozhi vol. 36.
Sun-Liu territorial dispute