Masculinity (also called manliness) is a set of attributes, behaviors, and roles generally associated with men and boys. Masculinity can be understood theoretically as socially constructed, and there is also evidence that some behaviors considered masculine are influenced by both cultural factors and biological factors. To what extent masculinity is biologically or socially influenced is subject to debate. It is distinct from the definition of the biological male sex, as anyone can exhibit masculine traits. Standards of masculinity vary across different cultures and historical periods. In Western cultures, its meaning is traditionally drawn from being contrasted with femininity.
Overview
Standards of manliness or masculinity vary across different cultures, subcultures, ethnic groups and historical periods. Traits traditionally viewed as masculine in Western society include strength, courage, independence, leadership, dominance, and assertiveness.Thomas, R. Murray (2001), "Feminist perspectives", in When women's labor participation increased, there were men who felt less comfortable in their masculinity because it was increasingly difficult for them to reconfirm their status as the breadwinner.
The academic study of masculinity received increased attention during the late 1980s and early 1990s, with the number of courses on the subject in the United States rising from 30 to over 300. View online preview. This has sparked investigation of the intersection of masculinity with concepts from other fields, such as the social construction of gender difference (prevalent in a number of philosophical and sociological theories).
People regardless of biological sex may exhibit masculine traits and behavior. Those exhibiting both masculine and feminine characteristics are considered androgynous, and feminist philosophers have argued that gender ambiguity may blur gender classification. Pdf.
History The concept of masculinity varies historically and culturally. Since what constitutes masculinity has varied by time and place, according to Raewyn Connell, it is more appropriate to discuss "masculinities" than a single overarching concept.
Antiquity
Ancient literature dates back to about 3000 BC, with explicit expectations for men in the form of laws and implied masculine ideals in myths of gods and heroes. According to the Code of Hammurabi (about 1750 BC): Rule 3: "If any one bring an accusation of any crime before the elders, and does not prove what he has charged, he shall, if it be a capital offense charged, be put to death." Rule 128: "If a man takes a woman to wife, but has no intercourse with her, this woman is no wife to him."
In the Hebrew Bible of 1000 BC, when King David of Israel drew near to death, he told his son Solomon: "I go the way of all the earth: be thou strong therefore, and shew thyself a man".
In his book Germania (98 AD), Tacitus stated that the men from the ancient Germanic tribes fought aggressively in battle to protect their women from capture by the enemy."It stands on record that armies already wavering and on the point of collapse have been rallied by the women, pleading heroically with their men, thrusting forward their bared bosoms, and making them realize the imminent prospect of enslavement – a fate which the Germans fear more desperately for their women than for themselves." -Tacitus (Germania) In his account of ancient Germany, Tacitus presented the Germanic warrior Arminius as a masculine hero whose already violent nature was further heightened by the abduction of his beloved wife Thusnelda by the Roman general Germanicus. In his rage Arminius demanded war against the Roman empire.Tacitus, The Annals 1.59
Medieval and Victorian eras
Jeffrey Richards describes a European "medieval masculinity which was essentially Christian and chivalric," which included concepts like courage, respect for women of all classes and generosity. According to David Rosen, the traditional view of scholars (such as J. R. R. Tolkien) that Beowulf is a tale of medieval heroism overlooks the similarities between Beowulf and the monster Grendel. The masculinity exemplified by Beowulf "cut[s] men off from women, other men, passion and the household".Rosen, David (1993), "The armor of the man-monster in Beowulf ", in
In Arab culture, Hatim al-Tai is known to be a model of Arab manliness. It is said that he used to give away everything he possessed except for his mount and weapons.
In China, the martial hero occupied a central place in masculine ideals, with military figures celebrated in official history, popular religion, and literature alike. Martial prowess was institutionalized as a masculine ideal through the civil examination system's military counterpart, the wuju (武举), established in 702 CE, which tested candidates in archery, horsemanship, and strength. The veneration of military figures extended into religious life; generals such as Guan Yu were posthumously deified, his temples spreading across China from the Song dynasty onward. His composure while a surgeon scraped poison from his bone without anesthesia became an enduring archetype of masculine indifference to physical suffering. The monk Lu Zhishen, who uproots a willow tree bare-handed in Water Margin, represented a related ideal of masculine physical transcendence.In Japan, the bushido code demanded that a warrior choose death over dishonor, while sumo wrestling, formalized as a court ritual during the Nara period (710–794), located masculine virtue in physical dominance and ritual purity.
In Korea, the hwarang of the Silla dynasty were trained in martial arts, poetry, and music, their code recorded in the Samguk Yusa as: "be loyal to your lord, be obedient to your parents, have trust among friends, never retreat in battle, and never kill indiscriminately."
During the Victorian era, masculinity underwent a transformation from traditional heroism. Scottish philosopher Thomas Carlyle wrote in 1831: "The old ideal of Manhood has grown obsolete, and the new is still invisible to us, and we grope after it in darkness, one clutching this phantom, another that; Werterism, Byronism, even Brummelism, each has its day".
Boxing was professionalized in America and Europe in the 19th century; it emphasized the physical and confrontational aspects of masculinity.Christopher David Thrasher, Fight Sports and American Masculinity: Salvation in Violence from 1607 to the Present (2015). Bare-knuckle boxing without gloves represented "the manly art" in 19th-century America.Elliott J. Gorn, The Manly Art: Bare-Knuckle Prize Fighting in America (1986).
20th century to present
In 1963, social theorist Erving Goffman's seminal work on stigma management presented a list of traits prescribed as categorically masculine for American men:In an important sense there is only one complete unblushing male in America: a young, married, white, urban, northern, heterosexual Protestant father of college education, fully employed, of good complexion, weight and height, and a recent record in sports.Goffman, Erving. 1963. Stigma: Notes On The Management Of Spoiled Identity. Englewood Cliffs, N.J.: Prentice-Hall.:128
Writing in 1974, R. Gould asserted that the provider role was central to adult men's identities, as masculinity is often measured by the size of a man's economic contribution to the family.Gould, R. 1974. Measuring masculinity by the size of a paycheck. In: J. Pleck & J. Sawyer (Eds.) Men and masculinity (pp. 96 – 100). Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey: Prentice-Hall. Masculinity is also associated with denying characteristics associated with women.Pascoe, C. J. (2012). Dude, you're a fag : masculinity and sexuality in high school. Berkeley: University of California Press. Overwhelmingly, the construction of masculinity most valued in the latter part of the 20th century and the early 21st century is one that is independent, sexually assertive, and athletic, among other normative markers of manhood. There is some evidence of this construction developing slightly however. A 2008 study showed that men frequently rank good health, a harmonious family life and a good relationship with their spouse or partner as more important to their quality of life than physical attractiveness and success with women. See also: The advent of social media has been associated with the ability to form emotional and supportive relationships with others.
Development
Nature versus nurture
Scholars have debated the extent to which gender identity and gender-specific behaviors are due to socialization versus biological factors. Social and biological influences are thought to be mutually interacting during development. Studies of prenatal androgen exposure have provided some evidence that femininity and masculinity are partly biologically determined. Other possible biological influences include evolution, genetics, epigenetics, and hormones (both during development and in adulthood). Scholars suggest that innate differences between the sexes are compounded or exaggerated by the influences of social factors.Fausto-Sterling, Anne. 2014. "Where Does Gender Come From?" Footnote. http://footnote.co/where-does-gender-come-from/ Wharton, Amy S. 2012. The Sociology of Gender, second edition. Hoboken, NJ: Wiley-Blackwell.Birke, Lynda. 1992. "Transforming biology." Pp. 66–77 in Knowing Women: Feminism and Knowledge. Ed. by H. Crowley and S. Himmelweit. Polity/Open University. However, others have pointed to the fact that personality differences between the sexes are seen to increase with increased levels of egalitarianism.
Social construction of masculinity Across cultures, characteristics of masculinity are similar in essence but varying in detail, another shared pattern is that non-typical behavior of one's sex or gender may be viewed as a social problem. In sociology, this labeling is known as gender assumptions and is part of socialization to meet the mores of a society. Non-standard behavior may be considered indicative of homosexuality, despite the fact that gender expression, gender identity and sexual orientation are widely accepted as distinct concepts. When sexuality is defined in terms of object choice (as in early sexology studies), male homosexuality may be interpreted as effeminacy. Machismo is a form of masculinity that emphasizes power and is often associated with a disregard for consequences and responsibility.
Some believe that masculinity is linked to the male body; in this view, masculinity is associated with male genitalia. Others have suggested that although masculinity may be influenced by biology, it is also a cultural construct. Many aspects of masculinity assumed to be natural are linguistically and culturally driven. Males were more likely to be depicted in a less humorous way in the evening as opposed to the daytime, whereas females were more likely to be rated in a less humorous way in the daytime as opposed to the evening.Furnham, Adrian, and Virginia Voli. "Gender Stereotypes in Italian Television Advertisements." Journal of Broadcasting & Electronic Media, vol. 33, no. 2, Spring 1989, pp. 175-185. Reeser argues that although the military has a vested interest in constructing and promoting a specific form of masculinity, it does not create it. Facial hair is linked to masculinity through language, in stories about boys becoming men when they begin to shave.
Some social scientists conceptualize masculinity (and femininity) as a performance.Butler, Judith (2006) . Gender trouble: feminism and the subversion of identity. New York London: Routledge.Connell, R.W. (2005). Masculinities (2nd ed.). Cambridge: Polity. Gender performances may not necessarily be intentional and people may not even be aware of the extent to which they are performing gender, as one outcome of lifelong gender socialization is the feeling that one's gender is "natural" or biologically ordained.