Vijayanagara architecture of 1336–1565 CE was a notable building idiom that developed during the rule of the imperial Hindu Vijayanagara Empire. The empire ruled South India, from their regal capital at Vijayanagara, on the banks of the Tungabhadra River in modern Karnataka, India. The empire built temples, monuments, palaces and other structures across South India, with the largest concentration in its capital. The monuments in and around Hampi, in the Vijayanagara district, are listed as a UNESCO World Heritage Site.
In addition to building new temples, the empire added new structures and made modifications to hundreds of temples across South India. Some structures at Vijayanagara are from the pre-Vijayanagara period. The Mahakuta hill temples are from the Western Chalukya era. The region around Hampi had been a popular place of worship for centuries before the Vijayanagara period with the earliest records dating from 689 CE when it was known as Pampa Tirtha after the local river God Pampe.
There are hundreds of monuments in the core area of the capital city. Of these, 56 are protected by UNESCO, 654 monuments are protected by the Government of Karnataka and another 300 await protection.Global Heritage Fund
Salient features
Vijayanagara architecture can be broadly classified into religious, courtly and civic architecture, as can the associated sculptures and paintings.Hampi – A Travel Guide, pp 36, Department of Tourism, India The Vijayanagara style is a combination of the Chalukya, Hoysala, Rashtrakuta, Pandya and Chola styles which evolved earlier in the centuries when these empires ruled and is characterised by a return to the simplistic and serene art of the past.Art critic Percy Brown calls Vijayanagara architecture a blossoming of Dravidian style, A Concise History of Karnataka, pp 182, Dr. S.U. Kamath, History of Karnataka, Arthikaje Large multi-purpose halls (mandapas) surrounding the main shrine with elaborate and intricately carved pillars and the tall entrance towers (Gopurams, more specifically Rayagopurams named after the ruling Rayas) are two notable Vijayanagara additions to South Indian temple architectural tradition.
For the approximately 400 years during the rule of the Western Chalukya and the Hoysalas empires, the most popular material for temple construction was chloritic schist or soapstone. This was also true for sculpture as soapstone is soft and easily carved. During the Vijayanagar period the local hard granite was preferred in the Badami Chalukya style, although soapstone was used for a few reliefs and sculptures.Their style was characterised by a return to the simplistic and serene art of the Badami Chalukya says Dr. S.U. Kamath about the sculptures in Vijayanagar style, A Concise History of Karnataka, pp 184, Dr. S.U. Kamath While the use of granite reduced the density of sculptured works, granite was a more durable material for the temple structure. Because granite is prone to flaking, few pieces of individual sculptures reached the high levels of quality seen in previous centuries. To cover the unevenness of the stone used in sculptures, artists employed plaster to give the rough surface a smooth finish and then painted it with lively colours.Hampi – A Travel Guide, pp 42–43, Department of Tourism, India
Temples Vijayanagara temples are usually surrounded by a strong enclosure. Small shrines consist simply of a garbhagriha (sanctum) and a porch. Medium-sized temples have a garbhagriha, shukanasi (antechamber), a navaranga (antrala) connecting the sanctum and outer mandapa or mantapa (hall), and a rangamantapa (enclosed pillared hall). Large temples have tall Rayagopuram built with wood, brick and stucco in Chola style. The term Raya is added to indicate a gopura built by Vijayanagar Rayas. The top of the gopuram has a shalashikhara resembling a barrel made to rest on its side. Large life-size figures of men, woman, Gods and Goddesses adorn the gopuram. This Tamil dravida-influenced style became popular during the rule of king Krishnadevaraya and is seen in South Indian temples constructed over the next 200 years.New Light on Hampi, Recent research in Vijayanagara, edited by John M. Fritz and George Michell, pp 9 Examples of Rayagopuram are the Chennakesava Temple in Belur and the temples at Srisailam and Srirangam. In addition to these structures, medium-size temples have a closed circumambulatory (Pradakshinapatha) passage around the sanctum, an open mahamantapa (large hall), a kalyanamantapa (ceremonial hall) and a temple tank to serve the needs of annual celebrations.The elaboration of ceremonial observances produced a corresponding elaboration in the temple system, says art critic Percy Brown, A Concise History of Karnataka, pp 183, Dr. S.U. Kamath
Temple pillars often have engravings of charging horses or hippogryphs (Yali) — horses standing on hind legs with their forelegs lifted and riders on their backs. The horses on some pillars stand seven to eight feet tall. On the other side of the pillar are usually carvings from Hindu mythology.The attached colonnettes and sculptured animals are a significant artistic innovation of the reign of king Krishnadevaraya. New Light on Hampi, Recent research in Vijayanagara, edited by John M. Fritz and George Michell, pp 8 Pillars that do not have such hippogryphs are generally rectangular with mythology-themed decoration on all sides. Some pillars have a cluster of smaller pillars around a central pillar shaft. The bottom supports of these pillars have engravings of gods and goddesses. Carvings of hippogryphs clearly show the adroitness of the artists who created them.A Concise History of Karnataka, pp 183, Dr. S.U. Kamath
The Mandapas are built on square or polygonal plinths with carved friezes that are four to five feet high and have ornate stepped entrances on all four sides with miniature elephants or with Yali balustrades (parapets).An imaginary beast acting as parapet. These beautifully sculptured supports were used in entrances to temples and as flanks to steps and stairs in royal palace structures. New Light on Hampi, Recent research in Vijayanagara, edited by John M. Fritz and George Michell, pp 53 The Mantapas are supported by ornate pillars.A regular feature saya Prof. K.A.N. Sastri about the importance of pillars in the Vijayanagara style in A Concise History of Karnataka, pp 183, Dr. S.U. Kamath The 1,000-pillared style with large halls supported by numerous pillars was popular. The 1,000-pillared Jain basadi at Mudabidri is an example. Larger temples have a separate shrine for the female deity. Some examples of this are the Hazara Rama, Balakrishna and Vitthala temples at Hampi.
Some shrines in the Vitthalapura area inside Vijayanagara were consecrated specifically for Tamil Alwar saints and for the great Vaishnava saint, Ramanujacharya. Architecturally they are different in that each shrine has an image depicting the saint for whose worship the temple was built. Each shrine has its own enclosure and a separate kitchen and pilgrim-feeding hall.New Light on Hampi, Recent research in Vijayanagara, edited by John M. Fritz and George Michell, pp 35–36 The water storage tank inside the royal center, the [stepwell stepped tank] called "Pushkarni", is a recent archaeological discovery. The stepped tank is fashioned with finished chlorite schist slabs arranged in a symmetrical formation with steps and landings descending to the water on all four sides. This is clearly a Western Chalukya-Hoysala style tank and is seen in many parts of present-day Karnataka.According to Dominic J Davidson-Jenkins in New Light on Hampi, Recent research in Vijayanagara, edited by John M. Fritz and George Michell, pp 89
Palaces Much of what is known today of Vijayanagara palaces is drawn from archaeological excavations at Hampi as no royal palace structures have survived.According to Channabasappa S. Patil, New Light on Hampi, Recent research in Vijayanagara, pp 51, edited by John M. Fritz and George Michell Most palaces stand in their own compound defined by high tapering walls made of stone or layered earth. Palaces are approached through a sequence of courts with passageways and doorways requiring multiple changes in direction. All palaces face east or north. The larger palaces have side extensions giving the complex a symmetrical shape.
Palaces were built on raised platforms made of granite. The platforms have multiple tiers of mouldings with well-decorated friezes.A rectangular decorated panel of stone is called a frieze, A complete guide to Hoysala Temples, pp 93 Gerard Foekema. The decorations can be floral, Kirtimukha shapes (demon faces), geese, elephants and occasionally human figures. Pillars, beams and rafters inside the palace were made of wood as evidenced by ash discovered in excavations. The roof was made of brick or lime concrete, while copper and ivory were used for finials. Palaces commonly consisted of multiple levels with each flight of stairs decorated by balustrades on either side, with either yali (imaginary beast) or elephant sculptures. The entrance steps into palaces and temple mantapas were similarly decorated. Water tanks inside the palace complex have decorative water spouts such as the carved torso of the Nandi with a gaping mouth to allow water flow into the tank.According to Channabasappa S. Patil, New Light on Hampi, Recent research in Vijayanagara, pp 57, edited by John M. Fritz and George Michell Other structures commonly found inside a palace complex are wells and shrines.
The courtly architecture generally show secular styles with Islamic influences. Examples are the Lotus Mahal palace, Elephant stables, and watch towers.New Light on Hampi, Recent research in Vijayanagara, edited by John M. Fritz and George Michell, pp 10. Courtly buildings and domed structures were built with mortar mixed with stone rubble.
Gallery
Terminology Mantapa – pillared hall Mahamantapa – Open pillared hall Rangamantapa – Closed pillared hall Kalyanamantapa – Hall meant for celebrations and special occasions Garbhagriha – Sanctum where the idol of God is placed Navaranga or Antrala – passage the connects different Sanctums Shukanasi – Antechamber
See also Vijayanagara Hampi Lepakshi Srikalahasti Vijayanagar Empire Hoysala architecture Indian architecture
Notes
References
Incredible India Hampi Guide Dr. Suryanath.M.U.Kamat, A Concise history of Karnataka from pre-historic times to the present, Jupiter books, MCC, Bangalore, 2001 (Reprinted 2002) OCLC: 7796041 Hampi, A Travel Guide, Department of Tourism, India, Good Earth publication, New Delhi 2003 New Light on Hampi, Recent research in Vijayanagara, edited by John M. Fritz and George Michell, MARG, 2001, History of Karnataka, Arthikaje Temples of Karnataka, Dr. Jyotsna Kamat
TempleNet:Temples of India www.Hampi.in: A website with photographs, descriptions and the site maps of the Hampi ruins.