Ethnic Chinese in Brunei are individuals of full or partial Chinese descent, primarily Han Chinese, who are either citizens or residents of the country. In 2015, they make up 15% of Brunei's population and as of 2020, make up just over 10%. Brunei is home to one of the smaller overseas Chinese communities, with many Chinese people in the country being stateless.
History
Early interactions According to the Taiping Huanyu Ji, Brunei (Boni) was one of the earliest kingdoms in Southeast Asia, having sent its first envoy to China in 977. Evidence of Song dynasty ceramics and Chinese brass coins from the 13th century also indicated Chinese presence within the area. Relationship between early Brunei and China is also evident with the story of Ong Sum Ping, a Chinese official, who married the daughter of Muhammad Shah, Sultan of Brunei at the time.
Due to the Chola invasion of Srivijaya and trade restructuring by the Northern Song, trade within Southeast Asia decreased. It wasn't until 1082 that Brunei finally sent a second embassy to China. After the collapse of the Chola Empire in 1150 and trade remodeling by Srivijaya, trade grew in the area and Brunei was recorded in Chinese texts in 1151 and 1206. By 1225, Brunei's significance in the Nanyang trade was noted by Zhao Rukuo. At the time, the country's main exports were tortoise shells and camphor which they exchanged for Chinese fabrics and pottery. Islam began spreading through Quanzhou, and by the 13th century, records show the presence of Chinese Muslims in Brunei, including a merchant named Master Pu. A Spanish source from 1578 also confirms the existence of a mosque and Muslim rulers in Brunei, where both Chinese and indigenous populations had converted to Islam.
Trade between China and Brunei continued till the second half of the 13th century. With the fall of Singhasari by the Mongols in 1292, Majapahit began to engage trading with Brunei at during the second half of the 14th century. After a raid by the Sulu chiefdom which were eventually stopped with Javanese help, Brunei moved its capital from Limau Manis to Kota Batu.
After a renewed maritime policy in 1368 by Emperor Hongwu of the Ming dynasty, the empire sent an emissary in 1370, which was responded by Brunei's own envoy the year afterward. Brunei wouldn't send another delegate to Nanjing until the end of the century. After Admiral Zheng He's expedition to the region, Brunei sent an envoy to Nanjing in 1405. The mountain overlooking Brunei was given the title of "everlasting protector of the country", the name possibly being the origin of the name Darussalam.
Trade between Brunei and the Ming dynasty grew substantially after the Ming's removal of their trade restriction in 1567. Among the items imported included silk materials, gold, ceramics, and second-hand iron, while exporting goods including bird's nests, slaves, wax, pearls, bezoar stones, camphor. A small Chinese community in Tanjung Batu and Muara mainly controlled these trades. After the Spanish attack in 1570 and the loss of the Manila vassalage in 1571 trade between the two decreased which benefited Sulu and Manila. While negotiations were sent by Sultan Muhammad to the Spanish to draw back Chinese traders and settlers back into the region, and an embassy was sent to Brunei in 1685, it ultimately failed due to Spanish insisting on sending Chinese settlers accompanied solely by Catholic priests.
After a maritime trade ban was lifted by the Qing conquest of Taiwan, trade resumed between Brunei and Southern China, helping Chinese farmers to settle along the Brunei River to cultivate peppers at the end of the first decade of the 18th century. Even after the decline of the Brunei Sultanate after 1720, The Chinese maintained trade by sending Junks from Amoy and Macau. Around 500-600 tons of junks were built on the Brunei River by Chinese carpenters.
After 1810, Chinese junks deserted the Brunei Bay due to a lack of support from British and Spanish forces against pressure from Sulu sending Balangigi and Iranun raids. Interest in trading within the region resurfaced after antimony was found in Sarawak. The sultan sent an embassy to Singapore and brought the newly found mineral with them in 1824. Three years later, he nominated Pengiran Indera Mahkota as the new governor of Sarawak. He founded Kuching and established mines around the area with the help of Chinese labor. Disputes between Pengiran Muda Hashim and Pengiran Muhammad Salleh eventually led to James Brooke intervening. A large part of Brunei had been lost and when they eventually gave sovereign rights to British, the Chinese population had almost dissapeared in 1906.
In 1904, Malcolm Stewart Hannibal McArthur estimmated around 500 Chinese living in Brunei, 20 times less than in 1800 based on the lowest estimates at the time. McArthur overestimated the population by around a third, so the number would have likely been closer to 300, most of which were registered as British subjects in Labuan. Chinese still dominated trade in the region, with retail and commodity trade such as sago, rattan, and other goods to Singapore.
The last sago plant under the sultanate was owned by Chua Chang Hee, a prominent Brunei businessman, and it closed soon after Sarawak took control of Limbang in 1890. It is possible that his family had been involved in minting Sultan Abdul Momin's coins in 1865, as coin crests were produced in many Malay states prior to European arrival. Other Chinese in Brunei worked as fishermen, craftspeople, or woodcutters in the forestry sector. The Cheok family, under the leadership of Cheok Yu, became the wealthiest in Brunei. Cheok Boon Siok, another member of the family, secured the British government's opium revenue monopoly in 1908. Other influential families included the Gohs, Ongs, and Angs, with the Ang family being the oldest. According to family tradition, the first Angs arrived in Brunei before James Brooke, and in 1919, a Chinese partnership, supported financially by Cheok Boon Siok, cleared and planted the first significant tract of irrigated rice farming.
Between 1911 and 1921, the Chinese population in Brunei doubled, rising from 3% to 5% of the total population due to improved healthcare. In 1912, the first Chinese primary school, Yik Chye School (now Chung Hwa Middle School), opened and taught Mandarin, a rarity in North Borneo. By 1929, attendance was mandatory for boys, and by 1941, five private Chinese primary schools existed, with some students attending Catholic schools. In 1918, the Qemoy (Kinmen) Hokkien built Tengyun Temple, the first Chinese temple, which contributed to an increase in Chinese immigration, bringing their representation to 9% by 1931. The discovery of oil in Seria in 1929 and the founding of the first Hainanese Association in 1939 further boosted the Chinese population, which reached 20% by 1947. However, Brunei lacked secondary schools, and families had to send their children to Labuan when English was introduced in 1936, creating a cultural divide. Belait became a modern hub within a more traditional society.
Despite these developments, much of Brunei's modern industry, including coal mining in Brooketon (present-day Muara), was controlled by Westerners, particularly the Brookes, which kept the average income of Bruneian Chinese relatively modest compared to their counterparts in the Straits Settlements. The Chinese traders and Malay pengiran lost their land and customs privileges, weakening their economic power. The Japanese invasion in December 1941 halted economic progress and shut down all Chinese schools. Despite a relatively gentle start to the occupation, the Chinese and Malays were subjected to harsh treatment, with many massacred in Brunei Town (now Bandar Seri Begawan). Nevertheless, the majority of Brunei's Chinese population survived.
Post-war economy and policies
Tensions between the Chinese and Malays in Brunei intensified after the reinstatement of British civil authority in July 1946. In mid-1946, Chinese workers at the Seria oil field went on strike due to supply shortages, and were replaced by both Chinese and Indian workers. This unrest coincided with nationalist movements opposing any merger with Sarawak, which had been transferred to British control in July 1946. The Pengiran Bendahara, Sultan Ahmad Tajuddin's brother, supported the Barisan Pemuda, a nationalist movement that included the radical Kumpulan Ganyang China (Group for Crushing the Chinese). BARIP demanded the recruitment of Malays into an administration dominated by English-speaking Chinese, and in early 1947, enforced the closure of Chinese shops during the sultan's mother's funeral to assert Malay dominance.
Between 1947 and 1960, Brunei's Chinese population grew 2.6 times, reaching 26% of the total population, largely driven by the oil boom. The resurgence in consumption led to the founding of the Chinese Chamber of Commerce (CCC) in 1947, and by the 1950s and 1960s, two geo-dialectal associations were established to represent the influx of Sarawakian Hakkas and Fuzhous. The issue of citizenship became prominent with the constitution of Brunei and the preparations for Brunei's first general elections, which required non-indigenous applicants to demonstrate long-term residence and pass a Malay language exam.
In 1950, the Pengiran Bendahara became Sultan Omar Ali Saifuddien III. In 1953, the sultan tripled corporate taxes, and with a 100-fold increase in oil revenue between 1946 and 1952, new social policies were introduced. The first secondary school opened in Brunei Town in 1951, followed by a second in Kuala Belait. The government funded half of the operating costs for Chinese schools, which began offering secondary education in 1954, and made primary Malay schools free. The sultan also introduced the concept of Melayu Islam Beraja (MIB), which defined Malayness through monarchy and religion, while reaffirming the significance of Islamic festivals like Hari Raya. The issue of citizenship was brought up during the planning of the first general elections after the 1959 Brunei Agreement with the British. The Brunei Nationality Act of December 1961 granted citizenship automatically to "indigenous races" (such as Murut people), while requiring other applicants to demonstrate 20 years of residency during the previous 25 years and pass a difficult Malay language test. After the 1962 Brunei revolt, which opposed Brunei's incorporation into a Malaysian Federation, the 1964 Brunei Nationality Act made identity cards compulsory, enforcing the registration of residents and restricting immigration, and since then, three types of ID cards have been issued: yellow for citizens, red for permanent residents, and green for long-term residents.