A parliamentary republic is a republic that operates under a parliamentary system of government where the executive branch (called the government in such systems) derives its legitimacy from and is accountable to the legislature (the parliament). Both executive and legislative powers are ultimately held within the parliament (fusion of powers) as most commonly the government is a subset of the members of the parliament (as opposed to congressional systems, where the congress - the legislature - is part of the government in the wider sense of the word).
There are a number of variations of parliamentary republics. Most have a clear differentiation between the head of government and the head of state, with the head of government holding real power and the head of state being a ceremonial position, similar to constitutional monarchies. In some countries the head of state has reserve powers to use at their discretion as a non-partisan "referee" of the political process. Some parliamentary republics (parliamentary republics with an executive presidency) have combined the roles of head of state and head of government, like presidential systems, but with a dependency upon parliamentary confidence.
In general, parliamentary republics grant the highest sovereign powers to the parliament. However, much like in monarchies, the head of state occupies an important formal role on the top of the legal system. The head of state, called a president (or president of the republic) in parliamentary republics, is usually elected directly by popular vote. However, there are some notable exceptions, where the president is elected by a special assembly or electoral college (e.g. Germany) or by members of parliament (e.g. Italy) in a special process.
Fusion of powers
In parliamentary republics, both executive and legislative powers are primarily held within the parliament.
In contrast to republics operating under either the presidential system or the semi-presidential system, the head of state usually does not have executive powers as an executive president would (some may have reserve powers or additional, but limited, powers), because many of those powers have been granted to a head of government (usually called a prime minister).
In a parliamentary republic with a head of state whose tenure is dependent on parliament, the head of government and head of state can form one office (as in Botswana, the Marshall Islands, Nauru, and South Africa), but the president is still selected in much the same way as the prime minister is in most Westminster systems. This usually means that they are the leader of the largest party or coalition of parties in parliament.
In some cases, the president can legally have executive powers granted to them to undertake the day-to-day running of government (as in Iceland) but by convention, they either do not use these powers or they use them only to give effect to the advice of the parliament or head of government. Some parliamentary republics could therefore be seen as following the semi-presidential system but operating under a parliamentary system.
Historical development Typically, parliamentary republics are states that were previously constitutional monarchies with a parliamentary system.
Following the defeat of Napoleon III in the Franco-Prussian War, France again became a republic – the French Third Republic – in 1870. The President of the Third Republic had significantly less executive powers than those of the previous two republics had. The Third Republic lasted until the invasion of France by Nazi Germany in 1940. Following the end of the war, the French Fourth Republic was constituted along similar lines in 1946. The Fourth Republic saw an era of great economic growth in France and the rebuilding of the nation's social institutions and industry after the war, and played an important part in the development of the process of European integration, which changed the continent permanently. Some attempts were made to strengthen the executive branch of government to prevent the unstable situation that had existed before the war, but the instability remained and the Fourth Republic saw frequent changes in government – there were 20 governments in ten years. Additionally, the government proved unable to make effective decisions regarding decolonization. As a result, the Fourth Republic collapsed and Charles de Gaulle was given power to rule by decree, subsequently legitimized by approval of a new constitution in a referendum on 28 September 1958, which led to the establishment of the French Fifth Republic in 1959.
Commonwealth of Nations
Since the London Declaration of 29 April 1949 (just weeks after Ireland declared itself a republic and excluded itself from the Commonwealth), republics have been admitted as members of the Commonwealth of Nations.
In the case of many republics in the Commonwealth of Nations, it was common for the Sovereign, formerly represented by a Governor-General, to be replaced by a non-executive head of state. This was the case in South Africa (which ceased to be a member of the Commonwealth immediately upon becoming a republic, and later transitioned to having an executive presidency), Malta, Trinidad and Tobago, India, Vanuatu and since 30 November 2021, Barbados. In many of these examples, the last Governor-General became the first president. Such was the case with Sri Lanka and Pakistan.
Other states became parliamentary republics upon gaining independence.
List of modern parliamentary republics and related systems
Full parliamentary republicsCountry/territoryHead of stateHead of state elected byCameral structureParliamentary republic adoptedPrevious government formNotes Bajram BegajParliament, by three-fifths majorityUnicameral1991One-party state Vahagn KhachaturyanParliament, by absolute majorityUnicameral 2018Changed after the 2015 referendum.Semi-presidential republicAlexander Van der BellenDirect election, by two-round systemBicameral1945One-party state (as part of Nazi Germany, see Anschluss)De jure semi-presidential republic operating as a full parliamentary republic. Hafiz Uddin AhmadParliamentUnicameral1991Was, previously, a parliamentary republic between 1972 and 1975.Semi-presidential republic Jeffrey BosticParliament, by two-thirds majority if there is no joint nominationBicameral2021Constitutional monarchy (Commonwealth realm) Denis BećirovićŽeljka CvijanovićŽeljko KomšićDirect election of collective head of state, by first-past-the-post voteBicameral1991One-party state (part of Yugoslavia) BulgariaIliana IotovaDirect election, by two-round systemUnicameral1991One-party state CroatiaZoran MilanovićDirect election, by two-round systemUnicameral2000Semi-presidential republic Petr PavelDirect election, by two-round system (since 2013; previously parliament, by majority)Bicameral1993Parliamentary republic (part of Czechoslovakia) Sylvanie BurtonParliament, by majorityUnicameral1978Associated state of the United Kingdom Alar KarisParliament, by two-thirds majorityUnicameral1991Estonia was previously a parliamentary republic between 1918 and 1934 when the system was changed to a presidential system which was thereafter overthrown by a coup d'état. In 1938, Estonia finally adopted a presidential system and in June 1940 was illegally occupied by the Soviet Union. Became a parliamentary republic again in 1990 with the implementation of an interim period to restore full independence, which was achieved by 1991.Presidential republic, thereafter occupied by a one-party state Taye Atske SelassieParliament, by two-thirds majorityBicameral1991One-party state Naiqama LalabalavuParliament, by majorityUnicameral2014Military dictatorship Alexander StubbDirect election, by two-round systemUnicameral2000Formerly a semi-presidential republic, it is now a parliamentary republic according to David Arter, First Chair of Politics at Aberdeen University. In his "Scandinavian Politics Today" (Manchester University Press, revised 2008 ), he quotes as follows: "There are hardly any grounds for the epithet 'semi-presidential'." Arter's own conclusions are only slightly more nuanced: "The adoption of a new constitution on 1 March 2000 meant that Finland was no longer a case of semi-presidential government other than in the minimalist sense of a situation where a popularly elected fixed-term president exists alongside a prime minister and cabinet who are responsible to parliament (Elgie 2004: 317)". According to the Finnish Constitution, the president has no possibility to rule the government without the ministerial approval, and does not have the power to dissolve the parliament under his or her own desire. Finland is actually represented by its prime minister, and not by its president, in the Council of the Heads of State and Government of the European Union. The 2012 constitutional amendments reduced the powers of the president even further.Semi-presidential republic Mikheil Kavelashvili (disputed)Parliament and regional delegates, by absolute majority (since 2024; previously direct election, by two-round system)Unicameral 2018Semi-presidential republic Frank-Walter SteinmeierFederal Convention (Bundestag and state delegates), by absolute majorityTwo unicameral institutions1949One-party state