The Seven Summits are the highest mountains on each of the seven traditional continents. On 30 April 1985, Richard Bass became the first climber to reach the summit of all seven.
In January 2023, Climbing said "Today, the Seven Summits are a relatively common—almost cliché—tour of each continent's highest peak", and while reaching the peak of the "Seven Summits" is no longer considered a significant achievement amongst mountaineers, it remains a popular challenge for "adventure mountaineers" using expedition climbing techniques.
Definitions The Seven Summits consist of the highest mountain peak on each of the continents. Different lists include slight variations, but generally, the same core is maintained. The seven summits depend on the definition used for a continent – in particular the location of the border of that continent. This results in two major points of variation. The first one is Mont Blanc versus Mount Elbrus for Europe, which depends on whether the crest of the Greater Caucasus Mountains is taken to define the Greater Caucasus watershed which marks the continental boundary between Asia and Europe for the region between the Black and Caspian seas; this classification would place Mount Elbrus in Europe. The second one is Puncak Jaya (also known as "Carstensz Pyramid") versus Mount Kosciuszko for the continent of Australia, which depends on whether one includes the Sahul Shelf or only mainland Australia as the continent. This also gives rise to another list called the "Eight Summits", which includes both Puncak Jaya and Mount Kosciuszko along with the six summits on the other continents.
This creates several possible versions of the seven summits:
Everest, Aconcagua, Denali, Kilimanjaro, Vinson, Elbrus, Mount Wilhelm (Continent) Everest, Aconcagua, Denali, Kilimanjaro, Vinson, Elbrus, Kosciuszko (the Bass version) Everest, Aconcagua, Denali, Kilimanjaro, Vinson, Elbrus, Puncak Jaya (the Messner version) Everest, Aconcagua, Denali, Kilimanjaro, Vinson, Mont Blanc, Mount Wilhelm (the Wilhelm version) Everest, Aconcagua, Denali, Kilimanjaro, Vinson, Mont Blanc, Kosciuszko (the 1950s explorer Hackett version) Everest, Aconcagua, Denali, Kilimanjaro, Vinson, Mont Blanc, Puncak Jaya Everest, Aconcagua, Denali, Kilimanjaro, Vinson, Mauna Kea, Puncak Jaya / Kosciuszko (the tectonic version)
The concept Richard Bass and his climbing partner Frank Wells were pursuing was to be the first to stand atop the highest mountain on each continent. They pursued this goal as they defined it, climbing Aconcagua for South America, Denali for North America, Kilimanjaro for Africa, Elbrus for Europe, Vinson for Antarctica, Kosciuszko for Australia, and finally Everest for Asia.
Safety and climbing preference In terms of safety and preference for climbers, the Russian invasion of Ukraine has affected Western climbers' ability to travel to Russia, making Elbrus less attractive. Similarly, Puncak Jaya on New Guinea has been closed due to security concerns and the risks posed by ongoing tribal conflicts and mining operations. These challenges have prevented climbers from accessing the area, further complicated by a security lockdown since August 2019. The situation escalated in February 2023 when Papuan rebels of Free Papua Movement took New Zealand pilot Philip Mark Mehrtens hostage, an event known as Nduga hostage crisis, signaling a new level of risk for foreigners in the highlands of Western New Guinea. The rebels' declaration of "all foreigners are now target" marked an intensification of the conflict, making travel to Western New Guinea highly advised against. Consequently, many climbers postponed their expedition to climb Carstensz Pyramid until the regional conflict subsides.
In summary, the Mount Wilhelm version of the Seven Summits currently presents the safest option for climbers, avoiding travel to Russia and Western New Guinea. Papua New Guinea remains a relatively safer option for mountaineers, and Mount Wilhelm offers an excellent high mountain expedition experience as the highest peak in Oceania.
Definition using tectonic plates
Using the largest tectonic plates, Asia and Europe could be grouped as Eurasia, and the very large Pacific Plate would have Mauna Kea as its highest mountain. Puncak Jaya is actually on the Maoke Plate, while Mount Wilhelm is, depending upon evolving plate tectonic understanding, on either the Trobriand Plate, Solomon Sea Plate, or Woodlark Plate, all of whom were historically grouped with the larger Australian Plate. If not, then Mount Kosciuszko would revert to being the highest of that plate (see also list of highest points of Oceanian countries).
African Plate – Kilimanjaro Antarctic Plate – Vinson Australian Plate – Puncak Jaya / Kosciuszko Eurasian Plate – Mount Everest North American Plate – Denali Pacific Plate – Mauna Kea South American Plate – Aconcagua
Oceania
The highest mountain in mainland Australia is Mount Kosciuszko, above sea level. However, the highest mountain on the Australian continent, which also includes New Guinea, is Puncak Jaya (Carstensz Pyramid), above sea level, in the Indonesian province of Central Papua on the island of New Guinea, which shares the Sahul continental shelf with Australia. Mount Kosciuszko is considerably easier to climb, requiring only a four-hour, grade 3 return walk from the nearest car park, while Puncak Jaya requires a mountaineering expedition with technical climbing, an approach through dense jungle and the need to charter an aircraft.
Some sources claim Mount Wilhelm () in Papua New Guinea's Bismarck Range (on the island of New Guinea, like Puncak Jaya) as the highest mountain on the Australian continent, on account of Indonesia being a part of AsiaStatistical Yearbook of Croatia, 2007 (see list of Southeast Asian mountains, which includes Puncak Jaya and other mountains in Western New Guinea, Indonesia). However, such a definition is political, not geophysical, and would mean that the western part of New Guinea changed continents in 1969.
In terms of Australia as a country, Mawson Peak () is higher than Kosciuszko. However, it is not located in Oceania, but in the Australian external territory of Heard Island and McDonald Islands in the southern Indian Ocean. Mt McClintock () is located within the claimed Australian Antarctic Territory and is the highest peak within territory claimed by Australia, but it is again not in Oceania. If the island of New Guinea is excluded, then Mount Cook on the South Island of New Zealand is the highest mountain in Australasia at .
Entities listing Mount Wilhelm as the highest point in Oceania or showing boundaries putting Puncak Jaya in Asia include the United Nations, the website 7 Continent Summits, World Atlas, the CIA World Factbook, Canada Atlas, and Papua New Guinea PNG Trekking.
Europe
The generally accepted highest summit in Europe is Mount Elbrus () in the Caucasus, appearing on both the Bass and Messner lists. However, because the location of the boundary between Asia and Europe is not universally agreed upon, its inclusion in Europe is disputed: if the Kuma–Manych Depression is used as the geological border between Asia and Europe, the Caucasus and Elbrus lie wholly in Asia. If the Greater Caucasus watershed is used instead, Elbrus' peaks are wholly in Europe, albeit close to the border with Asia. Mont Blanc (), lying on the border between France and Italy in the Graian Alps, is seen by some to be the highest mountain in Europe.
North America Denali (Mount McKinley) is the highest mountain peak in North America. The Caribbean Plate and the Panama Plate, both of which share geological processes with the North American continent, have their own highest mountain peaks:
North America – Denali () Caribbean Plate – Acatenango Volcano () Panama Plate – Mount Chirripó ()
South America
Aconcagua is the highest mountain peak in South America. The Altiplano Plate and the North Andes Plate, both of which share geological processes with the South American continent, have their own highest mountain peaks:
South America – Aconcagua () Altiplano Plate – presumably Nevado Sajama () North Andes Plate – Chimborazo ()
Bass and Messner lists The first Seven Summits list as postulated by Bass (the Bass or Kosciusko list) chose the highest mountain of mainland Australia, Mount Kosciuszko (), to represent the Australian continent's highest summit. Reinhold Messner postulated another list (the Messner or Carstensz list), replacing Mount Kosciuszko with Indonesia's Puncak Jaya, or Carstensz Pyramid (). Neither the Bass nor the Messner list includes Mont Blanc. From a mountaineering point of view, the Messner list is the more challenging one. Climbing Carstensz Pyramid has the character of an expedition, whereas the ascent of Kosciuszko is an easy hike. Indeed, Patrick Morrow used this argument to defend his choice to adhere to the Messner list, "Being a climber first and a collector second, I felt strongly that Carstensz Pyramid, the highest mountain in Australasia ... was a true mountaineer's objective."
+ Seven Summits (sorted by elevation) Photograph Peak Bass list Messner list Hackett list Elevation Prominence Continent Mountain Range Country First ascent Coordinates Mount Everest ✔ ✔✔ Asia Himalayas ChinaNepal 1953 Aconcagua ✔ ✔✔ South America Andes Argentina 1897 Denali ✔ ✔✔ North America Alaska Range United States 1913 Kilimanjaro ✔ ✔✔ Africa – Tanzania 1889 Mount Elbrus ✔ ✔ Europe Caucasus Mountains Russia 1874 Mount Vinson ✔ ✔✔ Antarctica Sentinel Range – 1966 Puncak Jaya ✔ Australia Sudirman Range Indonesia 1962 Mont Blanc✔ 4,810 m (15,781 ft) 4,696 m (15,407 ft) Europe Alps FranceItaly 1786 Mount Kosciuszko ✔✔ Australia Great Dividing Range Australia 1840
History In 1956, William D. Hackett (1918–1999), an American mountaineer, reached the top of five continents. He climbed Denali (then known as Mount McKinley) (1947), Aconcagua (1949), Kilimanjaro (1950), Kosciuszko (1956) and Mont Blanc (1956). At that time, Mont Blanc was considered to be the highest mountain of the European continent. Hackett made an attempt to climb Mount Vinson and obtained a permit for Mount Everest in 1960, but due to several circumstances (frostbite, lack of funds, etc.), he never made it to more than five summits.abc-of-mountaineering.com "History of the Quest for the Seven Summits (2004)" Retrieved 2 January 2015.British Mountaineering Council: "60 years of Seven Summits peak bagging (29/08/2013)" by Lindsay Griffin, thebmc.co.uk, Retrieved 2 January 2015.
In 1970, the Japanese mountaineer and adventurer Naomi Uemura (1941–1984) was the first person to reach five of the Seven Summits including Mount Everest. He climbed Mont Blanc (1966), Kilimanjaro (1966), Aconcagua (1968), Mount Everest (1970 solo) and Denali (1970 solo). After the first solo trip to the North Pole (1978), he planned to go on his own to Antarctica to climb Mount Vinson. In preparation for the Antarctica expedition, he did a solo winter ascent of Denali (1984). On the descent he disappeared in a winter storm.Naomi Uemura, renowned Japanese adventurer" , nikon.com, Retrieved 2 January 2015.