Pazeh–Kaxabu language

Pazeh (also spelled Pazih, Pazéh) and Kaxabu are dialects of a Formosan language of the Austronesian language family. It is the original language of the Pazeh and Kaxabu, neighboring Taiwanese indigenous peoples. The last remaining native speaker of the Pazeh dialect died in 2010, but 12 speakers of Kaxabu remain in Puli Township, Nantou County.

Classification

Pazeh and Kaxabu are classified as a Formosan language of the Austronesian language family.

Sound changes The Pazih language merged the following Proto-Austronesian phonemes (Li 2001:7).

*C, *S > s *D, *Z > d *k, *g > k *j, *s > z *S2, *H > h *N, *ñ > l *r, *R > x

Pazih also split some Proto-Austronesian phonemes: *S > s (merged with *C); *S2, *H > h *w > ø, w *e > e, u

History

Due to prejudice faced by the Pazeh, as well as other indigenous groups of Taiwan, Hoklo Taiwanese came to displace Pazeh.

The last remaining native speaker of the Pazeh dialect, Pan Jin-yu, died in 2010 at the age of 96. Before her death, she offered Pazeh classes to about 200 regular students in Puli and a small number of students in Miaoli and Taichung. However, there are still efforts in revival of the language after her death.

Phonology Pazeh has 17 consonants, 4 vowels, and 4 diphthongs (-ay, -aw, -uy, -iw).

+Consonants Labial Coronal1 Palatal Velar GlottalNasal Stop 3 ()2Fricative 4 5Rhotic Approximant and do not actually share the same place of articulation; is alveolar or prealveolar and (as well as ) is interdental. Other coronal consonants tend to be prealveolar or post-dental. The distribution for the glottal stop is allophonic, appearing only between like vowels, before initial vowels, and after final vowels. It is also largely absent in normal speech is spirantized intervocalically is actually an alveolar/prealveolar affricate and only occurs as a syllable onset. varies between glottal and pharyngeal realizations () and is sometimes difficult to distinguish from

Although Pazeh contrasts voiced and voiceless obstruents, this contrast is neutralized in final position for labial and velar stops, where only and occur respectively ( is also devoiced but a contrast is maintained). and are also neutralized to the latter. Voiceless stops are unreleased in final position.

+Vowels Front Central Back Close Mid Open

Mid vowels ([] and []) occur as allophones of close vowels ( and respectively). Both lower when adjacent to . lowers before . and are in free variation before Reduplicated morphemes carry the phonetic vowel even when the reduplicated vowel is not in the phonological context for lowering. → ('keep clapping').

is somewhat advanced and raised when adjacent to . Prevocally, high vowels are semivocalized. Most coronal consonants block this, although it still occurs after . Semivowels also appear post-vocally.

Phonotactics The most common morpheme structure is CVCVC where C is any consonant and V is any vowel. Consonant clusters are rare and consist only of a nasal plus a homorganic obstruent or the glide element of a diphthong.

Intervocalic voiceless stops are voiced before a morpheme boundary (but not following one) . Stress falls on the ultimate syllable.

Grammar Like Bunun, Seediq, Squliq Atayal, Mantauran Rukai, and the Tsouic languages,Li, Paul Jen-kuei. (1997). "A Syntactic Typology of Formosan Languages – Case Markers on Nouns and Pronouns." In Li, Paul Jen-kuei. (2004). Selected Papers on Formosan Languages. Taipei, Taiwan: Institute of Linguistics, Academia Sinica. Pazeh does not distinguish between common nouns and personal names, whereas Saisiyat does (Li 2000). Although closely related to Saisiyat, the Pazeh language does not have the infix -um- that is present in Saisiyat.

Morphology Pazeh makes ready use of affixes, infixes, suffixes, and circumfixes, as well as reduplication. Pazeh also has "focus-marking" in its verbal morphology. In addition, verbs can be either stative or dynamic.

There are four types of focus in Pazeh (Li 2000). Agent-focus (AF): mu-, me-, mi-, m-, ma-, ∅- Patient-focus (PF) -en, -un Locative-focus (LF): -an Referential-focus (RF): sa-, saa-, si-

The following affixes are used in Pazeh verbs (Li 2000). -in- 'perfective' -a- 'progressive' -ay 'actor focus, irrealis', -aw 'patient focus, irrealis' -i 'non-agent-focused imperative'

The following are also used to mark aspect (Li 2000). Reduplication of the verb stem's first syllable – 'progressive' lia – "already"

Affixes The Pazih affixes below are from Li (2001:10–19).

Prefixes ha-: stative ka-: inchoative kaa-: nominal kai-: to stay at a certain location kali- -an: susceptible to, involuntarily m-: agent focus ma- (ka-): stative ma- (pa-): to have (noun); agent-focus maa[ka]- (paa[ka]-): – mutually, reciprocal maka- (paka-): to bear, bring forth mana- (pana-): to wash (body parts) mari- (pari-): to bear, to give birth (of animal) maru- (paru-): to lay eggs or give birth masa-: verbal prefix masi- (pasi-): to move, to wear mata-: (number of) times mati- (pati-): to carry, to wear, to catch matu- (patu-): to build, erect, set up maxa- (paxa-): to produce, to bring forth; to become maxi- (paxi-): to have, to bring forth; to look carefully me-, mi- (pi-), mi- (i-): agent-focus mia- (pia-): towards, to go mia- which one; ordinal (number) mu- (pu-): agent-focus (-um- in many other Formosan languages); to release pa-: verbalizer; causative, active verb paka-: causative, stative verb papa-: to ride pu-: to pave pu- -an: locative-focus, location sa- ~saa-, si-: instrumental-focus, something used to ..., tools si-: to have, to produce; to go (to a location) si- -an: to bring forth, to have a growth on one's body ta-: agentive, one specialized in ...; nominal prefix; verbal prefix tau-: agentive tau- -an: a gathering place taxa-: to feel like doing; to take a special posture taxi-: to lower one's body taxu-: to move around ti-: to get something undesirable or uncomfortable tu-: stative xi-: to turn over, to revert

Infixes -a-: progressive, durative -in-: perfective

Suffixes -an: locative-focus, location -an ~ -nan: locative pronoun or personal name -aw: patient-focus, future -ay: locative-focus, irrealis -en ~ -un: patient-focus -i: patient-focus, imperative; vocative, address for an elder kinship CV- -an: location

Syntax Although originally a verb-initial language, Pazeh often uses SVO (verb-medial) sentence constructions due to influence from Chinese.

There are four case markers in Pazeh (Li 2000).

ki Nominative ni Genitive di Locative u Oblique

Pazeh has the following negators (Li 2001:46).

ini – no, not uzay – not kuang ~ kuah – not exist mayaw – not yet nah – not want ana – don't

Pronouns The Pazeh personal pronouns below are from Li (2000). (Note: vis. = visible, prox. = proximal)

+Pazeh Personal Pronouns Type of Pronoun Neutral Nominative Genitive Locative 1s. yaku aku naki yakuan, yakunan 2s. isiw siw nisiw isiwan 3s. (prox.) imini mini nimini iminiyan 3s. (vis.) imisiw misiw nimisiw misiwan 3s. (not vis.) isia sia nisia isiaan 1p. (incl.) ita ta nita (ta-) itaan 1p. (excl.) yami ami nyam(i) yamian, yaminan 2p. imu mu nimu imuan 3p. (prox.) yamini amini naamini yaminiyan 3p. (vis.) yamisiw amisiw naamisiw yamisiwan 3p. (not vis.) yasia asia naasia yasiaan

Vocabulary

Numerals Pazeh and Saisiyat are the only Formosan languages that do not have a bipartite numerical system consisting of both human and non-human numerals (Li 2006). Pazeh is also the only language that forms the numerals 6 to 9 by addition (However, Saisiyat, which is closely related to Pazeh, expresses the number 7 as 6 + 1, and 9 as 10 − 1.)

1 = 2 = dusa 3 = turu 4 = supat 5 = xasep 6 = 5 + 1 = xaseb-uza 7 = 5 + 2 = xaseb-i-dusa 8 = 5 + 3 = xaseb-i-turu 9 = 5 + 4 = xaseb-i-supat

The number "five" in Pazeh, xasep, is similar to Saisiyat Laseb, Taokas hasap, Babuza nahup, and Hoanya hasip (Li 2006). Li (2006) believes that the similarity is more likely because of borrowing rather than common origin. Laurent Sagart considers these numerals to be ancient retentions from Proto-Austronesian, but Paul Jen-kuei Li considers them to be local innovations. Unlike Pazeh, these Plains indigenous languages as well as the Atayalic languages use 2 × 4 to express the number 8. (The Atayalic languages as well as Thao also use 2 × 3 to express the number 6.) Saisiyat, Thao, Taokas, and Babuza use 10 − 1 to express 9, whereas Saisiyat uses 5 + 1 to express 6 as Pazeh does. The Ilongot language of the Philippines also derives numerals in the same manner as Pazeh does (Blust 2009:273). , .

Furthermore, numerals can function as both nouns and verbs in all Formosan languages, including Pazeh.

References

Notes

General references

Bibliography

Pazeh–Kaxabu language

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