The 1977 anti-Tamil pogrom in Sri Lanka followed the 1977 general elections in Sri Lanka where the Sri Lankan Tamil nationalistic Tamil United Liberation Front won a plurality of minority Sri Lankan Tamil votes. In the elections, the party stood for secession. An official government estimate put the death toll at 125, whereas other sources estimate that around 300 Tamils were killed by Sinhalese mobs.M.R. Narayan Swamy, Inside an elusive mind: Prabhakaran, Konark Publishers PVT limited, 2003, p.40Sivanayagam, S. Sri Lanka: Witness to History - A Journalist's Memoirs (1930-2004). 2005. Human rights groups, such as the UTHR-J, accused the newly elected UNP-led government of orchestrating the violence.
The pogrom began with policemen threatening and assaulting Tamils at a carnival in Jaffna, which led to a clash between the two groups. This led to further police violence against Tamils in Jaffna, followed by Tamil violence against Sinhalese in the city. Following the Jaffna incidents, violence erupted throughout the country.
Edmund Samarakkody in Workers Vanguard reported:
Background
Following Ceylon's independence in 1948, which saw D.S. Senanayake, the first Prime Minister of the island forming a government with a coalition with his United National Party (UNP), the Sinhala Maha Sabha of S. W. R. D. Bandaranaike and the Tamil Congress of G. G. Ponnambalam. This coalition soon fell apart, and Bandaranaike who was elected wave of Sinhalese-Buddhist nationalism, delivered on his election promise by enacting the Sinhala Only Act in 1956, Tamil parties began asking for more power for the North and east of Sri Lanka where Tamils are the majority. In 1957, the Bandaranaike-Chelvanayakam Pact was formed, but later scrapped by then prime minister S. W. R. D. Bandaranaike. Tensions related to the Sinhala Only policy resulted in riots in 1956 and 1958. During the early 1960s, prime minister Sirimavo Bandaranaike ruthlessly enforced the Sinhala Only policy, much to the detriment of the Tamils. In 1965, the new prime minister Dudley Senanayake created the Dudley-Chelvanayakam Pact, which sought to find a compromise on the issues of language, colonization, and devolution. There were modest gains in making Tamil the language of administration in the north and east. However, the regional councils proposed by the pact were not implemented. In 1970, Sirimavo Bandaranaike returned to power and once again enforced a pro-Sinhala-Buddhist policy, marginalizing the Tamils. Despite the communal tensions between Sinhalese and Tamils, there had been no major outbreaks of ethnic violence between the two groups since 1958.
Events leading up to August 1977 Tamil Separatism and the quest for Tamil Eelam
As early as 1972, S. J. V. Chelvanayakam had suggested that the Sri Lankan Tamils of the north and east may seek a separate state in response to the discrimination by the Sri Lankan government. In 1974, all major Tamil parties representing Tamils in the North east came under one forum (named as Tamil United Liberation Front - TULF). On 27 July 1975, Alfred Duraiappah, the Mayor of Jaffna and ruling party Sri Lanka Freedom Party (SLFP) orgernizer for Jaffna was shot dead allegally by Velupillai Prabhakaran, the government responded by re-arresting those it imprisoned earlier for anti-state activity, while others fled to India. On 14 May 1976, at the first national convention of the TULF at Vadukoddai, presided over by Chelvanayakam unanimously adopted the political resolution, known as the Vaddukoddai Resolution:
The TULF states in its manifesto for the 1977 general elections attacks the Republican Constitution of 1972, mentions grievances of the Tamils and liberation by the National Assembly of Tamil Eelam formed by Tamil speaking members of the National State Assembly drafting a constitution for the new state and bring it into force "either by peaceful means or by direct action or struggle". According to Sansoni, A. Amirthalingam had explained "that 'peaceful means' meant negotiation, 'direct action' meant Sathyagraha, 'struggle' meant civil disobedience". Amirthalingam intended to form the state of Tamil Eelam through political means by persuading and convincing members of parliament as Sansoni found "that any other method of achieving the separate State is unlawful and unconstitutional". He further states in his report that R. Sampanthan has stated that he took the oath of allegiance perform his duty as a members of parliament and use parliament as a "forum for the vindication and achievement of the objectives of his party, and in order to retain his seat" and does state that his party would not violate the constitution. Sansoni states in his report that during the general election campaign, members of the TULF and its youth front spoke in campaign speeches that "Eelam will be set up, if necessary by resort to violence".
Killing of Tamil policemen On 14 February 1977, Police Constable A. Karunandhi of the Kankesanthurai police station was shot by the Liberation Tigers of Tamil Eelam (LTTE), this was followed by the killing of two more Constables of the same name Shanmuganathan in Inuvil Jaffna, they were attached to CID units of police stations in Kankesanthurei and Valvettithurai. PC Karunandhi was detailed for the search for Prabhakaran and Patkunarajah who were suspected in the Duraiappah assassination, while PCs Shanmuganathan were investigating the killing of PC Karunandhi. The killing of PC Karunandhi was a shock to the police and after the killing of Shanmuganathans, Tamil police officers detailed to investigate the militants, requested transfers making it difficult for the police to find Tamil police officers to investigate the Tamil militants. In order to suppress the militants, many Tamil youth were detained and tortured.
1977 General elections G. G. Ponnambalam died in February 1977, followed by Chelvanayakam in April, creating a power vacuum. Chelvanayakam was succeeded by Amirthalingam as the leader of the TULF. On 3 June, after Chelvanayakam's ashes were taken to Trincomalee, a three-day clash between Sinhalese and Tamils in the area resulted in injuries on both sides. While some witnesses saw the August violence as continuation of the June violence, Sansoni maintained they were unrelated.
The 1977 general elections took place on 21 July 1977. The Tamil districts voted almost entirely for the TULF, winning 18 seats in parliament, with the TULF becoming the largest opposition party in Parliament and Amirthalingam becoming Leader of the Opposition. The SLFP was reduced to eight seats and the United National Party won 140 seats, with J. R. Jayewardene, becoming the new Prime Minister.
St. Patrick's College Carnival On 12 August, four policemen visited a carnival at St. Patrick's College, where they assaulted Mr. Kulanayagam, who asked them for an entry fee. The policemen misbehaved and helped themselves freely to food at food stalls without paying. On the 13th, the same policemen again went to the carnival where they clashed with locals around midnight. Two policemen were injured and hospitalised as a result. The policemen had claimed that they had gone in search of two men wanted for a robbery, this was rejected by Sansoni.
There were different beliefs on how the riots started. Some believe they started when there was a dispute that began when four policemen entered a carnival without tickets. Apparently the policemen were inebriated and proceeded to attack those who asked for tickets. The conflict escalated and the policemen were beaten up by the public and in retaliation the police opened fire.
Others have the view that the carnival incident was a pretext, inquiries revealing that it was conducted in an organized manner and was hence a pre-planned attack.
The ethnic pogrom
What began as a minor police-civilian clash in Jaffna escalated into a nationwide anti-Tamil communal violence. Some elements within the defeated SLFP were accused of fomenting the violence through planned and organized spreading of false rumours against Tamils to destabilize the government. Anti-UNP political motivation was revealed by the Sinhalese rioters who reportedly told their Tamil victims that they were being punished for helping the UNP win the elections. Reports indicated that some sections of the SLFP also participated in the violence.
Walter Schwarz in the Minority Rights Group reported:
Edmund Samarakkody in Workers Vanguard reported:
According to an official estimate, 125 people were killed during the riots. By ethnicity, the breakdown was 97 Tamils, 24 Sinhalese, 1 Muslim, and 3 of unknown ethnicity. Other sources estimate that around 300 Tamils were killed by Sinhalese mobs.
In a letter addressed to President J. R. Jayewardene, the leader of the main Tamil party, A. Amirthalingam accused Sinhala hoodlums of killing 300 Tamils, raping around 200, and causing injury or displacement to tens of thousands during the pogrom.Appapillai Amirthalingam, Secretary General of the Tamil United Liberation Front and Leader of the Opposition - Letter to the Sri Lanka President J.R.Jayawardene - 10 August 1983 His wife Mangayarkarasi Amirthalingam emotionally recounted some incidents of rape that occurred during the 1977 pogrom and said "Tamil women could not walk the streets during nights in safety."T. Sabaratnam, Pirapaharan, Chapter 17 - Sinhala-Tamil Tension Mounts (2003)
The following is a breakdown of the rioting by district as given in the "Report of the Presidential Commission" (1980) and other eyewitness accounts:
Jaffna District On 12 August, four policemen visited a carnival at St. Patrick's College, where they assaulted Mr. Kulanayagam, who asked them for an entry free. The policemen misbehaved and helped themselves freely to food at food stalls without paying. On the 13th, the same policemen again went to the carnival where they clashed with locals around midnight. Two policemen were injured and hospitalised as a result. The policemen had claimed that they had gone in search of two men wanted for a robbery, this was rejected by Sansoni.
On 14 August, MPs A. Amirthalingam and V. Yogeswaran reported that several local residents had complained of being assaulted by the police. A policeman was then later shot at and hospitalized. After this, some Tamils had been assaulted by unidentified men, alleged to be police.
On 15 August, a mob of about 100 people were reported to be causing damage to lights and signs near the Jaffna Bus stand. A mob was also reported to have caused damages to the Old Market and assaulted people there. Tamil politicians and members of the public blamed the police for this violence. However, Sansoni said that the evidence was insufficient to apportion blame to the police.
On the morning of the 16th at 5am, MP V. Yogeswaran stated that a number of people came to his house to inform him that 10 policemen in Khakis had set fire to shops in the Old Market at 1.40 AM. The police were also accused of smashing goods and damaging name boards, statues and motor vehicles. Sansoni states that Mr. Joseph, Additional Government Agent received a letter to the Government Agent from three Trade Unions of the Jaffna Kachcheri who complained that "the Police committed atrocities on the innocent public from last night, causing damage to public properties, Normal life has come to a standstill. The officers are unable to travel to their respective work places safely. As a protest against the Police authorities the members of our Unions in all offices in the District have decided to go on strike till the issues involved are satisfactorily resolved. We demand a public inquiry into the whole incident".