The Shan people (, , or , ), also known as the Tai Long (တႆးလူင်) or Tai Yai, are a Tai ethnic group native to Southeast Asia. As the largest minority ethnic group in Myanmar (Burma), the Shan have historically coexisted and integrated within the broader framework of the Burmese nation, remaining an integral part of the country's socio-political history and identity across successive historical eras.
In Myanmar, the term "Shan" serves as a generic umbrella designation for all Tai-speaking groups. Although no comprehensive nationwide census has been conducted since 1935, contemporary demographic estimations place the Shan population between 5 and 6 million, representing approximately 10% of Myanmar's total population. The majority of Shan people are adherents of Theravada Buddhism, intertwined with elements of traditional Tai folk religion.
Geographic distribution The Shan population is predominantly concentrated within the boundaries of modern Myanmar, though their historical settlements extend into adjacent territories across Southeast Asia and South Asia.
They primarily inhabit the Shan State, but significant communities also reside across adjoining administrative divisions, including the Mandalay Region, Kachin State, Kayah State, Sagaing Region, and Kayin State. Taunggyi serves as the capital of Shan State, functioning as the chief urban hub alongside other major regional cities such as Lashio, Kengtung, Tachileik, and Hsipaw. Beyond the borders of Myanmar, closely related Tai-speaking groups live in southwestern China (where they are officially designated as the Dai people), Laos, northern Thailand, northern Vietnam, and Cambodia (known historically as the Kula people). Furthermore, their ancestral diaspora extends into Northeast India, notably in Assam and Meghalaya, where they are represented by the Ahom people.Sao Sāimöng, The Shan States and the British Annexation. Cornell University, Cornell, 1969 (2nd ed.)
Etymology The Shan use the endonym Tai (တႆး) in reference to themselves, which is also used in Chinese (), sometimes with a larger scope.
Shan (ရှမ်း) is an exonym from the Burmese language; the term itself was historically spelt သျှမ်း (MLCTS: hsyam:), and is cognate with the term "Siam," the former name of Thailand. The term is extant to Old Burmese, first attested to a Bagan era inscription from 1120, where it referred to Tai-speaking populations east of the kingdom. "Shan" has also been borrowed into Chinese ().
In Thai, the Shan are called Tai Yai (ไทใหญ่, ) or Ngiao () in Tai yuan language. The Shan also have a number of exonyms in other minority languages, including Pa'O: ဖြဝ်ꩻ, Western Pwo Karen: ၥဲၫ့, and Mon သေံဇၞော် (seṃ jnok).
Sub-ethnicity
Major subdivisions The major groups of Shan people are: Tai Yai (Shan: ) or Thai Yai (); the 'Shan Proper', by far the largest group, by which all Shan people are known in the Thai language. Tai Lü or Tai Lue (Shan: ). Its traditional area is in Xishuangbanna (China) and the eastern states. Tai Khuen or Tai Khün (Shan: ), a subgroup of the Tai Yai making up the majority in the Keng Tung area. The former ruling family of Kengtung State belonged to this group. Tai Nüa or Tai Neua, (Shan: ). The 'upper' or 'northern Tai'. This group lives north of the Shweli River, mostly in the area of Dehong, China.
The speakers of Shan, Lue, Khun and Nua languages form the majority of Dai nationality in China.
Other Tai Shan groups There are various ethnic groups designated as Tai throughout Shan State, Northern Sagaing Division and Kachin State. Some of these groups in fact speak Tibeto-Burman and Mon-Khmer and Assamese languages, although they are assimilated into Shan society.Edmondson, Jerold A. 2008. "Shan and other Northern Tier Southeast Tai languages of Myanmar and China: Themes and Variations." In Diller, Anthony, Jerold Edmondson, & Yongxian Luo, (eds.) The Tai–Kadai languages. London: Routledge. Tai Ahom people: The Tai Ahom people live in India's northeastern state of Assam and Arunachal Pradesh where tradition says that they established the Ahom kingdom, or Mueng Doon Soon Kham, and ruled for almost 600 years (1228–1826). They now speak the Assamese language with the Ahom language falling into disuse by the 19th century. Tai Mao, living in the area along the banks of the Shweli River (Nam Mao). Chinese Shan language is also known as (Tai) Mao, referring to the old Shan State of Mong Mao. Tai Khamti. The Tai Khamti an outlier group speaking the Khamti language. Traditionally they lived in the northernmost and westernmost edges of Shan-settled areas, such as Putao-O, Kachin State. Part of the Tai Khamti were once ruled by the Mongkawng Shan. Tai Laing, Tai Leng, or Shan-ni (), a Tai group living north of Myitkyina in the Kachin / Shan State border area. Tai Ting, a group living around the confluence of the Ting and Salween rivers, just to the west of Gengma County, Yunnan, China. Tai Taɯ: Taɯ means 'under' or 'south.' This group lives in southern Shan State. Tai Nui, a group living to the south and east of Kengtung town. Tai Phake. Related to the Tai Khamti, this group has a significant presence in Assam, India. Tai Saʔ. The Tai Saʔ speak a variety of Ngochang (Achang), but are part of mainstream Shan society. Tai Loi. The Tai Loi speak a Palaungic language resembling De'ang (especially the Bulei dialect of Yunnan) and Silver Palaung. They take part in mainstream Shan society. Tai Dam: Also known as the "Black Tai." Tai Dón: Also known as the "White Tai". Maingtha, a Shan group that speaks a Northern Burmish languageSawada, Hideo. 2017. Two Undescribed Dialects of Northern Burmish Sub-branch: Gyannoʔ and Thoʔlhang. Presented at ICSTLL 50, Beijing, China.
Religion and culture The majority of Shan are Theravada Buddhists, and Tai folk religion. The Shan constitute one of the four main Buddhist ethnic groups in Burma; the others are the Bamar, the Mon and the Rakhine. The Mon were the main source of early Shan Buddhism and Shan scripts. Among the Shan Buddhists in both Burma and Yunnan are the Zawti sect, an austere sect of Theravada Buddhism whose practitioners are distinguished by their use of palm leaf texts in home altars instead of Buddha images.
Most Shan speak the Shan language and are bilingual in Burmese. The Shan language, spoken by about 5 or 6 million, is closely related to Thai and Lao, and is part of the family of Tai languages.Shan language page from Ethnologue It is spoken in Shan State, some parts of Kachin State, some parts of Sagaing Division in Burma, parts of Yunnan, and in parts of northwestern Thailand, including Mae Hong Son Province and Chiang Mai Province. The two major dialects differ in number of tones: Hsenwi Shan has six tones, while Mongnai Shan has five. The Shan alphabet is an adaptation of the Mon–Burmese script via the Burmese alphabet. However, only a few Shan can read and write in their own language. Shan state is the most illiterate state with over a million illiterates in Myanmar due to lack of basic infrastructures and long ongoing civil war.
The Shan are traditionally wet-rice cultivators, shopkeepers, and artisans.Susan Conway, The Shan: Culture, Art and Crafts (Bangkok, 2006).
History
The Tai-Shan people are believed to have migrated from Yunnan in China. The Shan are descendants of the oldest branch of the Tai-Shan, known as Tai Luang ('Great Tai') or Tai Yai ('Big Tai'). The Tai-Shan who migrated to the south and now inhabit modern-day Laos and Thailand are known as Tai Noi (or Tai Nyai), while those in parts of northern Thailand and Laos are commonly known as Tai Noi ('Little Tai' – Lao spoken) The Shan have inhabited the Shan Plateau and other parts of modern-day Burma as far back as the 10th century CE. The Shan kingdom of Mong Mao (Muang Mao) existed as early as the 10th century CE but became a Burmese vassal state during the reign of King Anawrahta of Pagan (1044–1077).
After the Pagan Kingdom fell to the Mongols in 1287, the Shan chiefs quickly gained power throughout central Burma, and founded:
StatePeak territoryDurationNotes Myinsaing–Pinya Kingdom (1297–1364) Central Burma 1297–1364 Founded by three Shan brothers named Athinkhaya, Yazathingyan and Thihathu, and the minor kingdom was a predecessor to Ava Kingdom Sagaing Kingdom Central Burma 1315–1364 Thihathu was a co-founder of the Myinsaing Kingdom and the founder of the Pinya Kingdom, and the minor kingdom was a predecessor to Ava Kingdom. Confederation of Shan States Upper Burma 1527–1555 A group of Shan States led by Sawlon, Saopha of Mohnyin conquered the Ava Kingdom in 1527 and ruled Upper Burma until 1555 Shan States (Princely states) Shan States 1215–1885, 1948–1959 Princely Shan States British Shan States / Federated Shan States Shan States 1885–1922, 1922–1948 Princely Shan States of British Burma were nominally sovereign princely states, but they were subject to British Crown.Great Britain India Office. The Imperial Gazetteer of India. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1908.Census of India 1901 – Burma Many Ava and Pegu kings of Burmese history between the 13th–16th centuries were of (partial) Shan descent. The kings of Ava fought kings of Pegu for control of the Irrawaddy valley. Various Shan states fought Ava for the control of Upper Burma. The states of Monyhin (Mong Yang) and Mogaung were the strongest of the Shan States. Monhyin-led Confederation of Shan States defeated Ava in 1527, and ruled all of Upper Burma until 1555.
The Burmese king Bayinnaung conquered all of the Shan states in 1557. Although the Shan states would become a tributary to Irrawaddy valley based Burmese kingdoms from then on, the Shan Saophas retained a large degree of autonomy. Throughout the Burmese feudal era, Shan states supplied much manpower in the service of Burmese kings. Without Shan manpower, it would have been harder for the Burmans alone to achieve their victories in Lower Burma, Siam, and elsewhere. Shans were a major part of Burmese forces in the First Anglo-Burmese War of 1824–1826, and fought valiantly—a fact even the British commanders acknowledged.
In the latter half of the 19th century Shan people migrated into Northern Thailand reaching Phrae Province. The Shan population in Thailand is concentrated mainly in Chiang Rai, Chiang Mai, Mae Hong Son, Mae Sariang, Mae Sai and Lampang, where there are groups which settled long ago and built their own communities and temples. Shan people are known as "Tai Yai" in north Thailand, where the word Shan is very seldom used to refer to them.History of Lanna – From Dark Times to Modern Times
After the Third Anglo-Burmese War in 1885, the British gained control of the Shan states. Under the British colonial administration, the Shan principalities were administered separately as British protectorates with limited monarchical powers invested in the Shan Saophas.
After World War II, the Shan and other ethnic minority leaders negotiated with the majority Bamar leadership at the Panglong Conference, and agreed to gain independence from Britain as part of Union of Burma. The Shan states were given the option to secede after 10 years of independence. The Shan states became Shan State in 1948 as part of the newly independent Burma.
General Ne Win's coup d'état overthrew the democratically elected government in 1962, and abolished Shan saopha system.
Conflict in Shan State