In psychology, personality type refers to the psychological classification of individuals. In contrast to personality traits, the existence of personality types remains extremely controversial. Types are sometimes said to involve qualitative differences between people, whereas traits might be construed as quantitative differences.Bernstein, Penner, Clarke-Stewart, & Roy (2008). Psychology, 8th edition. Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin Company. According to type theories, for example, introverts and extraverts are two fundamentally different categories of people. According to trait theories, introversion and extraversion are part of a continuous dimension, with many people in the middle.
Clinically effective personality typologies Effective typologies aim to improve understanding of individuals and predict clinically relevant information, as opposed to diminishing knowledge and understanding as occurs in the case of stereotyping. There is an extensive literature on the topic of classifying the various types of human temperament and an equally extensive literature on personality traits or domains. These classification systems attempt to describe normal temperament and personality and emphasize the predominant features of different temperament and personality types; they are largely the province of the discipline of psychology. Personality disorders, on the other hand, reflect the work of psychiatry, a medical specialty, and are disease-oriented. They are classified in the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual (DSM), a product of the American Psychiatric Association.Flaskerud, Jacquelyn H.Issues in Mental Health Nursing, Vol 33(9), Sep, 2012. pp. 631-634.
Types vs. traits The term type has not been used consistently in psychology and has become the source of some confusion. Furthermore, because personality test scores usually fall on a bell curve rather than in distinct categories,Bess, T.L. & Harvey, R.J. (2001). Bimodal score distributions and the MBTI: Fact or artifact? Paper presented at the 2001 Annual Conference of the Society for Industrial and Organizational Psychology, San Diego, USA. personality type theories have received considerable criticism among psychometric researchers. One study that directly compared a "type" instrument (the MBTI) to a "trait" instrument (the NEO PI) found that the trait measure was a better predictor of personality disorders.Furnham, A., & Crump, J. (2005). Personality Traits, Types, and Disorders: An Examination of the Relationship Between Three Self-Report Measures. European Journal of Personality, 19, 167-184. Because of these problems, personality type theories have fallen out of favor in psychology. Most researchers now believe that it is impossible to explain the diversity of human personality with a small number of discrete types. They recommend trait models instead, such as the five-factor model.Asendorpf, J. B. (2003). Head-to-head comparison of the predictive validity of personality types and dimensions. European Journal of Personality, 17, 327–346.Pittenger, D. J. (2004). The limitations of extracting typologies from trait measures of personality. Personality and Individual Differences, 37, 779–787.McCrae, R. R., Terracciano, A., Costa, P. T., & Ozer, D. J. (2006). Person-factors in the California adult Q-set: Closing the door on personality types? European Journal of Personality, 20, 29-44.
Big Five personality traits The Big Five or five-factor model (FFM) is the dominant framework in contemporary personality research. Unlike type theories, this model has five key, continuous dimensions. The Big Five traits are stable over time and can be applied across cultures. The five traits are often remembered by the acronym OCEAN. +TraitHigh scorerLow scorerKey facetsOpennessImaginative, curious, creativeConventional, practicalfantasy, aesthetics, ideasConscientiousnessOrganized, dependable, self-disciplinedFlexible, spontaneousdiscipline, achievement striving, dutifulnessExtraversionSociable, assertive, energeticReserved, solitarywarmth, assertiveness, activityAgreeablenessCooperative, trusting, empathicCompetitive, skepticaltrust, complianceNeuroticismAnxious, moody, easily stressedEmotionally stable, calmanxiety, hostility, depression The Big Five has demonstrated good test-retest reliability, and predictive power for mental health and academic and job performance. Unlike binary type assignments, FFM scores predict incrementally and avoid false dichotomies.
Type theories
An early form of personality type indicator theory was the Four Temperaments system of Galen, based on the four humours model of Hippocrates; an extended five temperaments system based on the classical theory was published in 1958. One example of personality types is Type A and Type B personality theory. According to this theory, impatient, achievement-oriented people are classified as Type A, whereas easy-going, relaxed individuals are designated as Type B. The theory originally suggested that Type A individuals were more at risk for coronary heart disease, but this claim has not been supported by empirical research. One study suggests that people with Type A personalities are more likely to develop personality disorders whereas Type B personalities are more likely to become alcoholics. Developmental psychologist Jerome Kagan is a prominent advocate of type indicator theory. He suggests that shy, withdrawn children are best viewed as having an inhibited temperament, which is qualitatively different from that of other children.Kagan, J. (1994). Galen's Prophecy: Temperament in Human Nature. New York: Basic Books. In some cases, trait theorists sometimes use the term type to describe someone who scores exceptionally high or low on a particular personality trait. Hans Eysenck refers to superordinate personality factors as types, and more specific associated traits as traits. Several pop psychology theories (e.g., Men Are From Mars, Women Are From Venus, the enneagram) rely on the idea of distinctively different types of people. Nancy McWilliams distinguishes eight psychoanalytic personalities: Psychopathic (Antisocial), Narcissistic, Schizoid, Paranoid, Depressive and Manic, Masochistic (Self-Defeating), Obsessive and Compulsive, Hysterical (Histrionic), and one Dissociative psychology.
Carl Jung One of the more influential ideas originated in the theoretical work of Carl Jung, as published in the book Psychological Types. The original German language edition, Psychologische Typen, was first published by , Zurich, in 1921. Jung's theory of psychological types is based on the assumption that there are different functions of consciousness and attitudes of consciousness.Daniels, M., Jung's Theory of Psychological Types, archived on 4 December 2002, accessed on 3 February 2025 Typologies such as Socionics, the MBTI assessment, and the Keirsey Temperament Sorter have their roots in Jungian theory.
Jung's interest in typology grew from his desire to reconcile the theories of Sigmund Freud and Alfred Adler, and to define how his own perspective differed from theirs. Jung wrote, "In attempting to answer this question, I came across the problem of types; for it is one's psychological type which from the outset determines and limits a person's judgment." (Jung, 1989:207) He concluded that Freud's theory was extraverted and Adler's introverted. (Jung, 1971: par. 91) Jung became convinced that acrimony between the Adlerian and Freudian camps was due to this unrecognized existence of different fundamental psychological attitudes, which led Jung "to conceive the two controversial theories of neurosis as manifestations of a type-antagonism." (Jung, 1966: par. 64)
Four functions of consciousness In the book Jung categorized people into primary types of psychological function.
Jung proposed the existence of two dichotomous pairs of cognitive functions: The "rational" (judging) functions: thinking and feeling The "irrational" (perceiving) functions: sensation and intuition Jung went on to suggest that these functions are expressed in either an introverted or extraverted form.
According to Jung, the psyche is an apparatus for adaptation and orientation, and consists of a number of different psychic functions. Among these he distinguishes four basic functions:Jung, C.G., Psychological Types (The Collected Works of C.G. Jung, Vol.6), ), ISBN Sensation—perception by means of immediate apprehension of the visible relationship between subject and object Intuition—perception of processes in the background; e.g. unconscious drives and/or motivations of other people Thinking—function of intellectual cognition; the forming of logical conclusions Feeling—function of subjective estimation, value oriented thinking Thinking and feeling functions are rational, while sensation and intuition are nonrational. According to Jung, rationality consists of figurative thoughts, feelings or actions with reason — a point of view based on a set of criteria and standards. Nonrationality is not based in reason. Jung notes that elementary facts are also nonrational, not because they are illogical but because, as thoughts, they are not judgments.
Attitudes: extraversion and introversion
Analytical psychology distinguishes several psychological types or temperaments. Extravert (Jung's spelling, although some dictionaries prefer the variant extrovert) Introvert
Extraversion means "outward-turning" and introversion means "inward-turning". These specific definitions vary somewhat from the popular usage of the words.
The preferences for extraversion and introversion are often called attitudes. Each of the cognitive functions can operate in the external world of behavior, action, people, and things (extraverted attitude) or the internal world of ideas and reflection (introverted attitude). People who prefer extraversion draw their energy toward objective, external data. They seek to experience and base their judgments on data from the outer world. Conversely, those who prefer introversion draw their energy toward subjective, internal data. They seek to experience and base their judgments on data from the inner world.
The attitude type could be thought of as the flow of libido (psychic energy). The functions are modified by two main attitude types: extraversion and introversion. In any person, the degree of introversion or extraversion of one function can be quite different from that of another function.
Four functions: sensation, intuition, thinking, feeling Jung identified two pairs of psychological functions: The two irrational (perception) functions, sensation and intuition The two rational (judgment) functions, thinking and feeling
Sensation and intuition are irrational (perception) functions, meaning they gather information. They describe how information is received and experienced. Individuals who prefer sensation are more likely to trust information that is real, concrete, and actual, meaning they seek the information itself. They prefer to look for discernable details. For them, the meaning is in the data. On the other hand, those who prefer intuition tend to trust information that is envisioned or hypothetical, that can be associated with other possible information. They are more interested in hidden possibilities via the unconscious. The meaning is in how or what the information could be.