Kumārajīva , 344–413 CE) was a Buddhist monk, scholar, missionary and translator from the Kingdom of Kucha (present-day Aksu Prefecture, Xinjiang, China). Kumārajīva is seen as one of the greatest translators of Chinese Buddhism and a pivotal figure in the development of literary Buddhist Chinese. According to Lu Cheng, Kumarajiva's translations are "unparalleled either in terms of translation technique or degree of fidelity".Beeby Lonsdale, Allison; Ensinger, Doris; Presas, Marisa (2000). Investigating Translation: Selected Papers from the 4th International Congress on Translation, Barcelona, 1998, p. 48. John Benjamins Publishing.
Kumārajīva first studied teachings of the Sarvastivadin schools, later studied under Buddhasvāmin, and finally became an adherent of Mahayana Buddhism, studying the Mādhyamaka doctrine of Nāgārjuna. After mastering the Chinese language, Kumārajīva settled as a translator and scholar in Chang'an (c. 401 CE) under the patronage of the Later Qin dynasty during the Sixteen Kingdoms period.Rahul, Ram (2000). March of Central Asia, p. 83. Indus Publishing. He was the head of a team of translators which included his amanuensis Sengrui.Lai, Whalen (1991). "Tao Sheng's Theory of Sudden Enlightenment Re-examined". In Gregory, Peter N. Sudden and Gradual. Approaches to Enlightenment in Chinese Thought. Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass Publishers Private Limited. p. 180 This team was responsible for the translation of many Sanskrit Buddhist texts into Chinese.
Kumārajīva also introduced the Madhyamaka school of Buddhist philosophy into China which would later be called Sanlun (the "Three Treatise school").
Life
Early life Kumārajīva was born in 344 CE in the Kingdom of Kucha – one of the Tocharian-speaking city-states of the Tarim Basin. His father was an Indian monk called Kumārāyana, who was probably from Kashmir or Gandhāra, and his mother, Jīva, was a member of the Kuchean royal family.
Himself an eminent Buddhist monk, Kumārāyana endeavoured to journey from his native Kashmir to China to spread his Buddhist teachings. After crossing the Pamir Mountains, Kumārāyana stopped in Kucha, where he stayed as a guest of the king. The king of Kucha was so impressed with Kumārāyana's ideas that the king proposed the marriage of his younger sister Jīva (also known as Jīvaka), a Kuchan princess and herself a devout Buddhist, to Kumārāyana. Kumārāyana and Jīva both acquiesced to this marriage. It was therefore that Kumārajīva's father Kumārāyana settled in Kucha, became the royal priest, met Kumārajīva's mother Jīva who influenced both his own subsequent Buddhist studies and later those of their son, and thereafter begat Kumārajīva.
When Kumārajīva was just seven, his mother Jīva joined the Tsio-li nunnery, north of Kucha. Beginning at the age of nine, Kumārajīva studied the Agamas and the Sarvastivada Abhidharma under masters in North India, Kashmir, and Kucha: all centers of Sarvastivada monasticism and scholarship.Zürcher 2007 p. 226. He later converted to and studied Mahayana under the Kashmirian Buddhayaśas in Kashgar.
In Kucha at the age of 20, Kumārajīva received full monastic ordination. Around this time he also began to study the Sarvastivada Vinaya and the Madhyamaka philosophy. Over his early life, Kumārajīva became a famous figure in Buddhism, known for his breadth of studies and skill in debate.
Capture, imprisonment and release
In 379 CE, Kumārajīva's fame reached China when a Chinese Buddhist monk named Seng Jun visited Kucha and described Kumārajīva's abilities. Efforts were then made by Emperor Fu Jian () of the Former Qin Dynasty to bring Kumārajīva to the Qin capital of Chang'an. To do this, his general Lü Guang was dispatched with an army in order to conquer Kucha and return with Kumārajīva. Fu Jian is recorded as telling his general, "Send me Kumārajīva as soon as you conquer Kucha."Duan, Wenjie. Dunhuang Art: Through the Eyes of Duan Wenjie. 1995. p. 94 However, when Fu Jian's main army at the capital was defeated, his general Lü Guang declared his own state and became a warlord in 386 CE, and had Kumārajīva captured when he was around 40 years old. Being a non-Buddhist, Lü Guang had Kumārajīva imprisoned for many years, essentially as booty. During this time, it is thought that Kumārajīva became familiar with the Chinese language. Kumārajīva was also coerced by Lü into marrying the Kucha King's daughter, and so he was forced to give up his monk's vows.Wu 1938, p. 455
After the Yao family of Later Qin overthrew the previous ruler Fu Jian, the ruler Yao Xing made repeated pleas to the warlords of the Lü family to free Kumārajīva and send him east to Chang'an. When the Lü family would not free Kumārajīva from their hostage, an exasperated Yao Xing had armies dispatched to Liangzhou in order to defeat the warlords of the Lü family and to have Kumārajīva brought back to them. Finally the armies of Emperor Yao succeeded in defeating the Lü family, and Kumārajīva was brought east to the capital of Chang'an in 401 CE.
Chang'an and translation work
At Chang'an, Kumārajīva was introduced to the emperor Yao Xing, the court, and the Buddhist leaders. He became a famous and well respected in China, being given the title of "National Preceptor" (guoshi).Yukteshwar Kumar (2005). A History of Sino-Indian Relations: 1st Century A.D. to 7th Century A.D. : Movement of Peoples and Ideas Between India and China from Kasyapa Matanga to Yi Jing, p. 128. APH Publishing. At Chang'an, Kumārajīva led a court sponsored translation team of scholars who worked on translating numerous Sanskrit Buddhist texts into the Chinese language.Mair, Victor H.; Sanping Chen, Wood, Frances (2013). Chinese Lives: The People Who Made a Civilization, #28, Kumarajiva. Thames & Hudson. Yao Xing looked upon him as his own teacher, and many young and old Chinese Buddhists flocked to him, learning both from his direct teachings and through his translation bureau activities at the Xiaoyao Gardens where daily sessions were held (attended by over a thousand monks). Within a dozen years, Kumārajīva's translation bureau had translated about thirty five sutras in 294 scrolls. His translations are still in use today in Chinese Buddhism. Kumarajiva had four main disciples who worked on his team: Daosheng (), Sengzhao (), Daorong (), and Sengrui (). According to Paul Williams, , a text translated by him, also has a clear association with the Vaibhāṣikas (Sarvāstivādins).Williams, Paul, and Tribe, Anthony. Buddhist Thought: A Complete Introduction to the Indian Tradition. 2000. p. 100
Scholarly work
Translation Kumārajīva revolutionized Chinese Buddhism, and his team's translation style is known for its clarity and for overcoming the previous geyi (concept-matching) system of translation which matched Buddhist terminology with Daoist and Confucian terms. Kumārajīva's readable translation style was distinctive, possessing a flowing smoothness that reflects his prioritization on conveying the meaning as opposed to precise literal rendering. Because of this, his renderings of seminal Mahāyāna texts have often remained more popular than later, more literal translations, e.g. those of Xuanzang.
Kumārajīva's translations were very influential on the development of Buddhist Chinese and they introduced much commonly used terminology, such as:
, or "greater vehicle", for the Sanskrit term for (placement of mindfulness) for (awakening) for (nature, source)
These translations were a group effort and therefore it is more accurate to say that they were translated by a committee which was guided by Kumārajīva, not by Kumārajīva alone. The process of translation began with the reading of the text by Kumārajīva who would also give a running commentary in Chinese. The Chinese monks and students would discuss the text with Kumārajīva and among themselves. A translation in Chinese would emerge from this process, which would be checked by Kumārajīva. The text was then written down and revised numerous times. These were also public events which were attended by devotees, including emperor Yao Xing.
Kumārajīva also developed a system of transcription in order to render Sanskrit terms in Chinese by using certain Chinese characters and their sounds to represent each syllable of a foreign word. This system would go on to become the basis of the development of pinyin romanization. This encounter with Sanskrit influenced the development of the Chinese language itself, not only in the adoption of specifically Buddhist terms, but also regarding certain secular terms as well (such as "moment").
Kumārajīva has sometimes been regarded by both the Chinese and by western scholars as abbreviating his translations, with later translators such as Xuanzang being regarded as being more "precise." According to Jan Nattier, this is actually an erroneous and mistaken view, and the main difference was due to the earlier versions of Kumarajiva's source texts:
Translated Texts According to John M. Thompson "at present there are fifty two translations in the Taishō under his name and their authenticity is fairly well accepted." They include Mahāyāna sutras as well as works on Buddhist meditation (dhyāna) and Abhidharma.
Sutras Among the most important sutras translated by Kumārajīva and his team (probably from Kuchan target sources) are the following:Litian Fang (2018) Chinese Buddhism and Traditional Culture, chapter 2. Routledge.Ramanan, K. Venkata (1987). Nāgārjuna's Philosophy: As Presented in the Mahā-Prajñāparamitā-Sastra, p. 15. Motilal Banarsidass Publ.
(Diamond Sutra) (T 366) (Lotus Sutra) (T 263–62) (T 475) , (T 227, 408 CE) (T 223, 403–404 CE) (T 642) (T 286) in collaboration with Buddhayaśas. (T 484) (T 585–86) (T 425) (T 481–82) ( T 310, 17) (T 433) (T 307) (T 381–82)
Treatises They also translated several key treatises (mainly of the Madhyamaka school), which became the central works of East Asian Madhyamaka Buddhism. These are:Nan, Huai-Chin. Basic Buddhism: Exploring Buddhism and Zen. 1997. p. 91
"The Middle Treatise" (, T. 1564; ), comprising Nāgārjuna's ("Fundamental Verses on the Middle Way") alongside a commentary by *Vimalākṣa / *Piṅgala (). "The Treatise on the Twelve Gates" (, T. 1568), allegedly Nāgārjuna's *,Cheng, Hsueh-li (2013). Nagarjuna's Twelve Gate Treatise Translated With Introductory Essays, Comments, and Notes. Springer, . p. 5 also reconstructed as Liu, Ming-Wood (1994). Madhyamaka thought in China. E.J. Brill, . p. 27 or as Ruegg, David. The Literature of the Madhyamaka School of Philosophy in India, Volume 7. "The Hundred(-Verse) Treatise" (, T. 1569; ,Lamotte, Etienne. Surangamasamadhisutra. p. 40 or ), consisting of a commentary by a certain master Vasu on some verses by Āryadeva. "Commentary on the Great Perfection of Wisdom" (, T. 1509; ). A commentary on the attributed to Nāgārjuna, but this attribution is disputed by some modern scholars. () – This Abhidharma text, while not being a work of Madhyamaka, was influential on Chinese Madhyamaka, since it also taught the emptiness of dharmas.Petzold, Bruno, The Classification of Buddhism, p. 300. Other treatises that the team worked on include the (T. 1521), a commentary to the attributed to Nagarjuna and the "Treatise On Arising Bodhicitta" (T. 1659).
Meditation texts Kumārajīva and his team also translated some treatises on meditation . In the Taisho Tripitaka (vol. 15), five meditation works are attributed to Kumārajīva:Yamabe, Nobuyoshi; Sueki, Fumihiko (2009). The sutra on the concentration of sitting meditation (Taishō Volume 15, Number 614), pp. xiv-xvii. Berkeley: Numata Center for Buddhist Translation and Research.Tansen Sen (2014) Buddhism Across Asia: Networks of Material, Intellectual and Cultural Exchange, volume 1, p. 116. Institute of Southeast Asian Studies.
"Scripture of the Secret Essentials of (T. 613. )