Pramana (; IAST: Pramāṇam) literally means "proof" and "means of knowledge".pramANa Sanskrit-English Dictionary, Koeln University, GermanyJames Lochtefeld, "Pramana" in The Illustrated Encyclopedia of Hinduism, Vol. 2: N-Z, Rosen Publishing. , pages 520-521 One of the core concepts in Indian epistemology, pramanas are one or more reliable and valid means by which human beings gain accurate, true knowledge. The focus of pramana is how correct knowledge can be acquired, how one knows, how one does not know, and to what extent knowledge pertinent about someone or something can be acquired.Karl Potter (2002), Presuppositions of India's Philosophies, Motilal Banarsidass, , pages 25-26DPS Bhawuk (2011), Spirituality and Indian Psychology (Editor: Anthony J. Marsella), Springer, , page 172
While the number of pramanas varies widely from system to system, many ancient and medieval Indian texts identify six pramanas as correct means of accurate knowledge and attaining to the truth. Three of these are almost universally accepted: perception (), inference (), and "word" (śabda), meaning the testimony of past or present reliable experts. The other three pramanas are more contentious: comparison and analogy (); postulation or derivation from circumstances (); and non-perception, or proof from absence ().Gavin Flood, An Introduction to Hinduism, Cambridge University Press, , page 225 Each of these are further categorized in terms of conditionality, completeness, confidence, and possibility of error.
The various schools of Indian philosophies vary on how many of these six pramanas are epistemically reliable and valid means to knowledge.P Bilimoria (1993), Pramāṇa epistemology: Some recent developments, in Asian philosophy - Volume 7 (Editor: G Floistad), Springer, , pages 137-154 For example, the Charvaka school of the Śramaṇa tradition holds that only one (perception) is a reliable source of knowledge, Buddhism holds that two (perception, inference) are valid means, Jainism holds three (perception, inference and testimony) as valid,John A. Grimes, A Concise Dictionary of Indian Philosophy: Sanskrit Terms Defined in English, State University of New York Press, , page 238 and the Mimamsa and Advaita Vedanta schools of Hinduism hold that all six pramanas are useful and can be reliable means to knowledge.Eliott Deutsche (2000), in Philosophy of Religion : Indian Philosophy Vol 4 (Editor: Roy Perrett), Routledge, , pages 245-248; John A. Grimes, A Concise Dictionary of Indian Philosophy: Sanskrit Terms Defined in English, State University of New York Press, , page 238 The various schools of Indian philosophy have debated whether one of the six forms of pramana can be derived from another and the relative uniqueness of each. For example, Buddhism considers Buddha and other "valid persons", "valid scriptures" and "valid minds" as indisputable, but that such testimony is a form of perception and inference pramanas.
Etymology literally means "proof," based on the word pramā. The Sanskrit root (), is a preposition meaning "outward" or "forth", and () means "measurement." means "correct notion, true knowledge, basis, foundation, understand." being a nominalization of the word,प्रमा Monier-Williams Sanskrit-English Dictionary, Koeln University, GermanyJohn A. Grimes (1996), A Concise Dictionary of Indian Philosophy: Sanskrit Terms Defined in English, State University of New York Press, , page 237-238 means that which is a "means of acquiring or certain, correct, true knowledge".
forms one part of a trio of concepts, which describe the ancient Indian view on how knowledge is gained. The other two concepts are , (, the subject, the knower) and (, the object, the knowable). They each influence the knowledge, by their own characteristic and the process of knowing.pramAtR Sanskrit-English Dictionary, Koeln University, Germanyprameya Sanskrit-English Dictionary, Koeln University, Germany
In Buddhist literature, is referred to as .Tom J. F. Tillemans (2011), Buddhist Epistemology (pramāṇavāda), The Oxford Handbook of World Philosophy (Editors: William Edelglass and Jay L. Garfield), is also related to the Indian concept of yukti () which means active application of epistemology or what one already knows, innovation, clever expedients or connections, methodological or reasoning trick, joining together, application of contrivance, means, method, novelty or device to more efficiently achieve a purpose.yukti Monier-Williams' Sanskrit-English Dictionary, Cologne Digital Sanskrit Lexicon, GermanyR Narasimha (2012), Asia, Europe, and the Emergence of Modern Science: Knowledge Crossing Boundaries, Palgrave Macmillan, , pages 95-97 yukti and are discussed together in some Indian texts, with yukti described as active process of gaining knowledge in contrast to passive process of gaining knowledge through observation/perception.R Narasimha (2012), Asia, Europe, and the Emergence of Modern Science: Knowledge Crossing Boundaries, Palgrave Macmillan, , pages 95-105CA Scherrer-Schaub (1981), Le term yukti: primiere etude, Etudes Asiatiques, 35: 185-199 The texts on pramana, particularly by Samkhya, Yoga, Mimamsa and Advaita Vedanta schools of Hinduism, often include in their scope what might be termed "theories of errors"; that is, philosophies regarding the reason for human error, how one may know if one is wrong, and—if so—how one can discover whether one's epistemic method or conclusion was flawed, as well what one ought then do in order to correct it.EI Warrier (2012), Advaita Vedānta from 800 to 1200 (Editor: Karl Potter), Motilal Banarsidass, , pages 512-530, 684Gerald Larson and Ram Bhattacharya, The Encyclopedia of Indian Philosophies (Editor:Karl Potter), Volume 4, Princeton University Press, , pages 361-362L Schmithausen (1965), Maṇḍana Miśra's Vibhrama-viveka, Österreichische Akademie der Wissenschaften. Phil.-hist. Klasse. Sitzungsberichte, Vol. 247; For excerpts in English: Allen Thrasher (1993), The Advaita Vedānta of Brahma-siddhi, , pages 20-38
Hinduism
Six pramanas Hinduism identifies six pramanas as correct means of accurate knowledge and to truths: Pratyakṣa (evidence/perception), Anumāna (inference), Upamāna (comparison and analogy), Arthāpatti (postulation, derivation from circumstances), Anupalabdhi (non-perception, negative/cognitive proof) and Śabda (word, testimony of past or present reliable experts).
In verse 1.2.1 of the Taittirīya Āraṇyaka (c. 9th–6th centuries BCE), "four means of attaining correct knowledge" are listed: smṛti ("scripture, tradition"), pratyakṣa ("perception"), aitihya ("expert testimony, historical tradition"), and anumāna ("inference").A. B. Keith (1925), The Religion and Philosophy of the Veda and Upanishads, Part II, p.482S. C. Vidyabhusana (1971). A History of Indian Logic: Ancient, Mediaeval, and Modern Schools, p.23
In some texts such as by Vedvyasa, ten pramanas are discussed, Krtakoti discusses eight epistemically reliable means to correct knowledge.Andrew J. Nicholson (2013), Unifying Hinduism: Philosophy and Identity in Indian Intellectual History, Columbia University Press, , pages 149-150 Six most widely recognized pramanas are:Karl Potter and Sibajiban Bhattacharya (1994), Epistemology, in The Encyclopedia of Indian Philosophies, Volume 6, Princeton University Press, , pages 53-68Howard Coward et al, Epistemology, in Encyclopedia of Indian Philosophies, Volume 5, Motilal Banarsidass, , pages 51-62
Pratyaksham Pratyaksham (m) means perception. It is of two types: external and internal. External perception arises from the interaction between the five senses and worldly objects, while internal perception refers to the awareness arising from the inner sense, the mind.MM Kamal (1998), The Epistemology of the Carvaka Philosophy, Journal of Indian and Buddhist Studies, 46(2): 13-16B Matilal (1992), Perception: An Essay in Indian Theories of Knowledge, Oxford University Press, According to Matt Stefan, the distinction is between direct perception (anubhava/anubhavaḥ) and remembered perception (smriti/smṛti).Matt Stefan, pratyaksha, Encyclopedia Britannica.
The ancient and medieval Indian texts identify four requirements for correct perception:Karl Potter (1977), Meaning and Truth, in Encyclopedia of Indian Philosophies, Volume 2, Princeton University Press, Reprinted in 1995 by Motilal Banarsidass, , pages 160-168 (): direct experience by one's sensory organ(s) with object being studied. Avyapadeśya: non-verbal; correct perception is not through hearsay, where one's sensory organ relies on accepting or rejecting someone else's perception, with no intermediate agency involved. Avyabhicāra: consistency; correct perception does not change, nor is it the result of deception because one's sensory organ or means of observation is drifting, defective, or suspect. Vyavasāyātmika: definite; lacks bias, and inferential judgment; correct perception excludes doubt, either from failure to observe all the details, or from mixing inference with observation.
Some ancient scholars proposed "unusual perception" as a pramāṇa, describing it as internal perception, a view contested by other Indian scholars. These internal perceptions include pratibhā (intuition), sāmānyalakṣaṇapratyakṣa (induction from specifics to a universal), and jñānalakṣaṇapratyakṣa (perceiving prior states of a 'topic of study' by observing its present state).Karl Potter (1977), Meaning and Truth, in Encyclopedia of Indian Philosophies, Volume 2, Princeton University Press, Reprinted in 1995 by Motilal Banarsidass, , pages 168-169 Some schools of Hinduism considered and refined rules of accepting uncertain knowledge from pratyakṣa pramana, distinguishing nirṇaya (definite judgment, conclusion) from anadhyavasāya (indefinite judgment).Karl Potter (1977), Meaning and Truth, in Encyclopedia of Indian Philosophies, Volume 2, Princeton University Press, Reprinted in 1995 by Motilal Banarsidass, , pages 170-172
Anumanam Anumanam () means 'inference' in Sanskrit, though it often is used to mean 'guess' in modern Indian languages. In the context of classical philosophy, it is described as reaching a new conclusion and truth from one or more observations and previous truths by applying reason.W Halbfass (1991), Tradition and Reflection, State University of New York Press, , page 26-27 Observing smoke and inferring fire is an example of Anumana. In all except one Hindu philosophies,Carvaka school is the exception this is a valid and useful means to knowledge. The method of inference is explained by Indian texts as consisting of three parts: pratijna (hypothesis), hetu (a reason), and drshtanta (examples).James Lochtefeld, "Anumana" in The Illustrated Encyclopedia of Hinduism, Vol. 1: A-M, Rosen Publishing. , page 46-47 The hypothesis must further be broken down into two parts, state the ancient Indian scholars: sadhya (that idea which needs to be proven or disproven) and paksha (the object on which the sadhya is predicated). The inference is conditionally true if sapaksha (positive examples as evidence) are present, and if vipaksha (negative examples as counter-evidence) are absent. For rigor, the Indian philosophies also state further epistemic steps. For example, they demand Vyapti—the requirement that the hetu (reason) must necessarily and separately account for the inference in "all" cases, in both sapaksha and vipaksha.Karl Potter (2002), Presuppositions of India's Philosophies, Motilal Banarsidass, A conditionally proven hypothesis is called a nigamana (conclusion).Monier Williams (1893), Indian Wisdom - Religious, Philosophical and Ethical Doctrines of the Hindus, Luzac & Co, London, page 61
Upamanam