Haitian Vodou () is an African diasporic religion that developed in Haiti between the 16th and 19th centuries. It arose through a process of syncretism between several traditional religions of West and Central Africa and Catholicism. There is no central authority in control of the religion and much diversity exists among practitioners, who are known as Vodouists in English.
Vodou teaches the existence of a transcendent creator divinity, Bondye, under whom are spirits known as . These lwa typically derive their names from traditional West and Central African deities, are equated with Catholic saints, and divide into groups called ("nations"), most notably the Rada and the Petwo. This theology has been labelled both monotheistic and polytheistic. Vodouists will often be initiated into an (temple), run by an (priest) or (priestess), through which group ceremonies are conducted. Alternatively, Vodou is also practised within family groups or in secret societies like the Bizango. Adherents seek the aid of the , and spirits of the dead, by offering them fruit, liquor, and sacrificed animals. Communication with the is sought through divination and through a key ritual in which Vodouists drum, sing, and dance to encourage a to temporarily possess the dancers. Healing rituals and the preparation of herbal remedies and talismans also play a prominent role.
Vodou developed among Afro-Haitian communities amid the Atlantic slave trade of the 16th to 19th centuries. Its structure arose from the blending of the traditional religions of those enslaved West and Central Africans brought to the island of Hispaniola, among them Kongo, Fon, and Yoruba. There, it absorbed influences from the culture of the French colonialists who controlled the colony of Saint-Domingue, most notably Roman Catholicism but also Freemasonry. Many Vodouists were involved in the Haitian Revolution of 1791 to 1801 which overthrew the French colonial government, abolished slavery, and transformed Saint-Domingue into the Haitian republic. The Catholic Church left for several decades following the Revolution, allowing Vodou to become Haiti's dominant religion. In the 20th century, growing emigration spread Vodou abroad. The late 20th century saw growing links between Vodou and related traditions in West Africa and the Americas, such as Cuban Santería and Brazilian Candomblé, while some practitioners influenced by the Négritude movement attempted to remove Catholic influences.
Most Haitians practice both Vodou and Catholicism, seeing no contradiction in pursuing the two systems simultaneously. Smaller Vodouist communities exist elsewhere, especially among Haitian diasporas in Cuba and the United States. Both in Haiti and abroad Vodou has spread beyond its Afro-Haitian origins and is practiced by individuals of various ethnicities. Having faced much criticism through its history, Vodou has been described as one of the world's most misunderstood religions.
Definitions and terminology
Vodou is a religion, sometimes considered Haiti's "national religion". Its main structure derives from the West and Central African traditional religions brought to Haiti by enslaved Africans between the 16th and 19th centuries, especially those of the Fon and Bakongo peoples. On the island, these African religions mixed with the iconography of European-derived traditions like Roman Catholicism and Freemasonry, taking the form of Vodou around the mid-18th century. In this, Vodou is syncretic, a symbiosis, or a product of creolization.
As formed in Haiti, Vodou represented "a new religion", "a creolized New World system", which differed in many ways from African traditional religions. The scholar Leslie Desmangles therefore called it an "African-derived tradition", Ina J. Fandrich termed it a "neo-African religion", and Markel Thylefors an "Afro-Latin American religion". Several other African diasporic religions from the Americas formed in a similar way, and owing to their shared origins in West African traditional religion, Vodou has been characterized as a "sister religion" of Cuban Santería and Brazilian Candomblé.
Vodou has no central institutional authority, no single leader, and no developed body of doctrine. It has no orthodoxy, no central liturgy, and no formal creed. Developing over several centuries, it has changed over time. It displays variation at both the regional and local level—including variation between Haiti and the Haitian diaspora—as well as among different congregations. It is practiced domestically, by families on their land, but also by congregations meeting at communal temples.
In Haitian culture, religions are not generally deemed wholly autonomous. Many Haitians practice both Vodou and Roman Catholicism, with Vodouists usually considering themselves Roman Catholics. In Haiti, some Vodouists have also practiced Protestantism, Mormonism, or Freemasonry; in Cuba they have involved themselves in Santería, and in the United States with modern Paganism. Vodou has also absorbed elements from other contexts; in Cuba, some Vodouists have adopted elements from Spiritism. Influenced by the Négritude movement, other Vodouists have sought to remove Roman Catholic and other European influences from their practice of Vodou.
Terminology In English, Vodou's practitioners are termed Vodouists; in French, they are , and in Haitian Creole, . Another term for adherents is sèvitè (, "devotees"), reflecting their self-description as people who ("serve the "), the supernatural beings that are central to Vodou.
Many words used in the religion derive from the Fon language of West Africa; this includes the word itself. First recorded in the 1658 Doctrina Christiana, the Fon word was used in the West African kingdom of Dahomey to signify a spirit or deity. In Haitian Creole, came to designate a specific style of dance and drumming, before outsiders to the religion adopted it as a generic term for Afro-Haitian religion. The word now encompasses "a variety of Haiti's African-derived religious traditions and practices", incorporating "a bundle of practices that practitioners themselves do not aggregate". is thus a term primarily used by scholars and outsiders to the religion; many practitioners describe their tradition as , denoting a moral philosophy and code regarding how to live and serve the spirits.
is the common spelling for the religion used by scholars, official Haitian Creole orthography, and the United States Library of Congress. Some scholars prefer the spellings Vodoun, Voudoun, or Vodun, while in French the spellings or also appear. The spelling Voodoo, once common, is now generally avoided by practitioners and scholars when referring to the Haitian religion. This is both to avoid confusion with Louisiana Voodoo, a related but distinct tradition, and to distinguish it from the negative connotations that the term Voodoo has in Western popular culture.
Beliefs
Bondye and the
Vodou is monotheistic, teaching the existence of a single supreme God. This entity is called Bondye or Bonié, a name deriving from the French term ("Good God"). Another name for this God—borrowed from Freemasonry—is the . For Vodouists, Bondye is the ultimate source of power, the creator of the universe, and the maintainer of cosmic order. Haitians frequently use the phrase ("if Bondye wishes"), suggesting a belief that all things occur in accordance with this divinity's will. Vodouists regard Bondye as being transcendent and remote; as the God is uninvolved in human affairs, they see little point in approaching it directly. While Vodouists often equate Bondye with the Christian God, Vodou does not incorporate belief in a powerful antagonist that opposes the supreme being akin to the Christian Satan.
Vodou has also been characterized as polytheistic. It teaches the existence of beings called the , a term varyingly translated into English as "spirits", "gods", or "geniuses". These are also known as the , , , and , and are sometimes equated with the angels of Christian cosmology. Vodou teaches that there are over a thousand , although certain ones are especially popular. Serving as Bondye's intermediaries, they communicate with humans through dreams or direct spirit possession. Each has its own personality, and is associated with specific colors, days of the week, and objects. Although there are exceptions, most derive their names from the Fon and Yoruba languages and originated as deities venerated in West or Central Africa. New are nevertheless added to the pantheon, with both talismans and humans thought capable of becoming , in the latter case through their strength of personality or power. Vodouists often believe the live in rivers or the sea, or alternatively in Ginen, a term encompassing a generalized understanding of Africa as the ancestral land of the Haitian people.
Vodouists believe that everyone connects to a specific , their ("master of the head"), who informs that individual's personality. Vodou holds that the identity of a person's tutelary can be identified through divination or by consulting when they possess other humans. Some of the religion's priests and priestesses are deemed to have "the gift of eyes", capable of seeing the identity of a person's tutelary . Certain are also linked to human family lineages. Vodouists believe the can offer help, protection, and counsel in return for ritual service. The can be either loyal or capricious in their dealings with their devotees; they are easily offended, for instance if offered food they dislike. When angered, the are believed to remove their protection from their devotees, or to inflict misfortune, illness, or madness. These spirits are not considered moral exemplars for practitioners to imitate.
The
The divide into or "nations". This classificatory system derives from the way in which enslaved Africans were divided into "nations" upon their arrival in Haiti, usually based on their African port of departure rather than their ethno-cultural identity. The term (family) is sometimes used synonymously with or alternatively as a sub-division of the latter category. It is often claimed that there are 17 , of which the Rada and the Petwo are the largest and most dominant.
The Rada are seen as being 'cool', the Petwo as 'hot'. This means that the Rada are , or sweet-tempered, while the Petwo are , indicating that they can be forceful or violent and are associated with fire. Whereas the Rada are generally righteous, their Petwo counterparts are more morally ambiguous and associated with issues like money. The Rada owe more to Dahomeyan and Yoruba influences; their name probably comes from Arada, a city in the Dahomey kingdom. The Petwo derive largely from Kongo religion, although also exhibit Dahomeyan and creolised influences. Some exist or ("in two waters") and are served in both Rada and Petwo rituals.
In Rada ceremonies, the first saluted is Papa Legba. Depicted as a feeble old man wearing rags and using a crutch, Papa Legba is the protector of gates and fences and thus of the home, as well as of roads, paths, and crossroads. In Petwo rites, the first invoked is usually Mèt Kalfou. The second usually greeted are the Marasa or sacred twins. In Vodou, every has its own Marasa, reflecting a belief that twins have special powers. Another important is Agwe, also known as Agwe-taroyo, who is associated with aquatic life and protects ships and fishermen. Agwe rules the sea with his consort, La Sirène. She is a mermaid, and is sometimes described as Èzili of the Waters because she brings good luck and wealth from the sea. Also bearing the name Èzili is Èzili Freda or Erzuli Freda, the of love and luxury who personifies feminine beauty and grace, and Ezili Dantor, who takes the form of a peasant woman.